Polity Austria-Hungary (Military occupation)

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Territories militarly occupied by Austria-Hungary.

Establishment

  • July 1848: Prince Franz Joachim Liechtenstein marched on Modena and Parma to restore the deposed dukes.
  • July 1848: In 1848, Prince Franz Joachim Liechtenstein led Austrian forces to restore the deposed dukes of Modena and Parma. The Duchy of Modena was under Austrian-Hungarian military occupation during this time.
  • August 1848: Austro-Hungarian forces occupied Bologna.
  • August 1848: On August 8, 1848, Bologna revolted and the Austrians had to abandon it the following day.

Chronology

Interactive Chronologies with maps are available in the section Changes Navigation

1. Revolutions of 1848

Was a revolutionary wave in Europe that started in France. The revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation-states, as envisioned by romantic nationalism.

1.1. First Italian War of Independence

Was the first of the three traditional Italian Wars of Independence. It was fought by the Kingdom of Sardinia against the Austrian Empire but it did not led to any territorial modification.

  • August 1849: Return to the status quo ante bellum at the end of the First Italian War of Independence.

1.1.1. Pedmontese Front (First Italian War of Independence)

Was the Piedmontese front of the First Italian War of Independence.

  • March 1849: In 1849, during the First Italian War of Independence, Austrian Field Marshal Radetzky's troops defeated the Piedmontese forces at La Cava. This victory allowed Austria-Hungary to maintain military occupation of the territory.
  • March 1849: Battle of Novara (1849).
  • March 1849: The armistice of Vignale was signed in the locality of the same name on 24 March 1849, between the king of Sardinia Vittorio Emanuele II and the Austrian marshal Josef Radetzky. The armistice imposed the withdrawal of the Sardinian fleet from the Adriatic and the temporary Austrian occupation of the stronghold of Alessandria and of the strategic quadrilateral between Lomellina and Monferrato.
  • August 1849: In 1849, the Austrian occupation of Alessandria and the strategic quadrilateral between Lomellina and Monferrato ended with the peace of Milan.

1.1.2. Papal State Front

Was the front in the Papal States of the First Italian War of Independence.

  • August 1848: Austro-Hungarian forces occupied Bologna.
  • August 1848: On August 8, 1848, Bologna revolted and the Austrians had to abandon it the following day.

1.1.3. Modena and Parma Operation

Was an Austrian military operation by prince Franz Joachim von Liechtenstein to restore the deposed dukes of Parma and Modena. .

  • July 1848: In 1848, Prince Franz Joachim Liechtenstein led Austrian forces to restore the deposed dukes of Modena and Parma. The Duchy of Modena was under Austrian-Hungarian military occupation during this time.
  • July 1848: Prince Franz Joachim Liechtenstein marched on Modena and Parma to restore the deposed dukes.

1.1.4. Austrian Invasion of the Papal States

Was an Austrian military campaign against the insurgents that had created the Roman Republic in the Papal States.

  • February 1849: The Austrian invasion of the Roman Republic began with the occupation of Ferrara.
  • May 1849: Bologna and Ancona did not accept being occupied and were subjected to siege. Bologna resisted for a week.
  • June 1849: Ancona conquered by austria.

1.1.5. French Invasion of the Papal States

Was a French military campaign against the insurgents that had created the Roman Republic in the Papal States.

  • April 1850: On April 12, 1850, Pius IX returned to Rome and abrogated the Constitution granted in March two years earlier.

1.1.6. Austrian Invasion of Tuscany

Was an Austrian military campaign against the insurgents that had created the Republic of Tuscany.

  • May 1849: D'Aspre led his II Army Corps to the occupation of Lucca.
  • May 1849: Pisa conquered by austria.
  • May 1849: Siege of Livorno.
  • May 1849: In 1849, during the Italian Wars of Independence, General Franz von D'Aspre of the Austrian Empire advanced as far as Empoli, a town in Tuscany, Italy. This military occupation was part of Austria-Hungary's efforts to suppress the Italian nationalist uprisings.
  • May 1849: Austrian occupation of Florence.
  • June 1849: Grand Duke Leopold II is restored in Florence.

2. Wars of Italian Unification

Was a series of conflicts that led to the unification of the Italian Peninsula into the Kingdom of Italy. It includes the three wars considered the three independency wars of Italy, in addition to a series of military operations like the Expedition of the Thousand and the Sardinian military campaign in Central Italy.

2.1. Second Italian War of Independence

Was the second of the three traditional Italian Wars of Independence. It was fought by the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Kingdom of France against the Austrian Empire. It resulted in the Sardinian annexion of Austrian ruled Lombardy, as well as the annexion of several Italian polities in Central Italy.

  • May 1859: The advance on Turin in 1859 was led by Austrian General Ludwig von Benedek, who commanded the 7th Army Corps. The occupation of Vercelli was part of Austria-Hungary's military campaign during the Second Italian War of Independence.
  • May 1859: In 1859, during the Second Italian War of Independence, the Austrian 2nd Army, led by Field Marshal Ferencz Gyulai, halted their advance and concentrated near Mortara in response to the growing threat posed by the French and Piedmontese forces.
  • May 1859: Battle of Montebello (1859).
  • May 1859: Battle of Palestro.
  • June 1859: Battle of Magenta.

2.1.1. Peace of Villafranca

Was an armistice that ended the Second War of Italian Independence. Italy annexed Lombardy from Austria, but had to cede Savoy and Nice to France.

  • July 1859: Armistice of Villafranca: Austria-Hungary ceded Lombard to the Kingdom of Sardinia (nominally, it was ceded to France which then transferred the region to Sardinia). Austrian and Savoy troops also left militarly occupied territories.

2.2. Third Italian War of Independence

Was the last of the three traditional Italian Wars of Independence, and also represented the southern theatre of the larger Austro-Prussian War. It was fought by the Kingdom of Italy against the Austrian Empire, resulting in the Italian annexion of the remaining territories of the Austrian Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.

2.2.1. Austrian Operations in Val Vestino

Was an Austrian military operation in Val Vestino during the Third Italian War of Independence.

  • July 1866: Austrian forces occupy Vestino Valley.

2.2.2. Austrian Operations in Valtellina

Was an Austrian military operation in Valtellina during the Third Italian War of Independence.

  • July 1866: An Austrian column descending from the Stelvio Pass occupied Bormio.
  • July 1866: On the evening of 3 July, an Italian detachment of about fifty men had proceeded reached the Mortirolo Pass.
  • July 1866: Bormio conquered by Kingdom of Italy.

3. Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)

Was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and a coalition led by the Russian Empire, and including Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro.

3.1. Treaty of Berlin

The Congress of Berlin (13 June - 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the representatives of the era's six great powers in Europe (Russia, Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Germany), the Ottoman Empire and four Balkan states (Greece, Serbia, Romania and Montenegro). It aimed at determining the territories of the states in the Balkan Peninsula after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 and came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Berlin, which replaced the preliminary Treaty of San Stefano. The treaty formally recognized the independence of the de facto sovereign principalities of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro.

  • July 1878: The Vilayet of Bosnia was placed under Austro-Hungarian occupation although it formally remained part of the Ottoman Empire.

4. World War I

Was a global conflict between two coalitions, the Allies (primarily France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan, and the United States) and the Central Powers (led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire). It was mainly caused by the competition of the western countries over domain in Europe and in the rest of the world with their colonial empires. The war ended with the defeat of the Central Powers. The war also caused the Russian Revolution and the ensuing Russian Civil War.

4.1. World War I Balkan Theatre

Was the theatre of war in the Balkan Peninsula during World War I.

4.1.1. Albania during World War I

Albanian theatre of World War I.

  • January 1917: Austria-Hungary used the French precedent in Korçë to justify the proclamation of the independence of Albania under its protectorate on January 3, 1917 in Shkodër.

4.1.1.1. Collapse of Albania

Invasion of Albania by the central powers during World War I.

4.1.2. Serbia during World War I

Serbian theatre of World War I.

4.1.2.1. Invasion of Serbia

Invasion of Serbia by the Central Powers during World War I.

4.1.3. Montenegro during World War I

Montenegrin theatre of World War I.

4.1.3.1. Invasion of Montenegro

Invasion fo Montenegro by the Central Powers during World War I.

4.1.4. Liberation of the Balkan States

Was the liberation of the Balkan states from the Central Powers during World War I.

  • October 1918: The 2nd Serbian Army under Stepa Stepanovic, with French forces, advanced northwest towards Kosovo. Pristina was liberated by the 11th French Colonial Division on 10 October.
  • October 1918: Peć conquered by Kingdom of Serbia.
  • October 1918: Colonel Dragutin Milutinović led a Serbian force, the "Scutari Troops" (later "Adriatic Troops"), northwest through Albania aiming to liberate Montenegro. This force arrived in Podgorica on 31 October.
  • November 1918: Belgrade conquered by Kingdom of Serbia.
  • November 1918: The Serbian army reached the border with Bosnia-Hercegovina at Dobor Pole.
  • November 1918: After a last skirmish, the Austro-Hungarian occupation force evacuated Montenegro.

4.2. World War I eastern Front

Was the theatre of war in eastern Europe during World War I.

  • January 1916: During the first year of the war, German and Austrian troops quickly conquered the Russian Vistula Land, the former Congress Poland, and in 1915, divided its administration between a German Governor General in Warsaw and an Austrian counterpart in Lublin.

4.2.1. Battle of Galicia

Was a major battle between Russia and Austria-Hungary during the early stages of World War I. The Austro-Hungarian armies were severely defeated and forced out of Galicia.

  • August 1914: The Austro-Hungarian 1st Army under Viktor Dankl moved in the north towards Lublin. Battle of Kraśnik.
  • August 1914: Battle of Komarow.
  • September 1914: Avancement into Galica by Russia.

4.2.2. Romania during World War I

Romanian theatre of World War I.

  • May 1918: Romania signed a formal peace treaty with the Central Powers, the Treaty of Bucharest of 1918. Romania ceded the Carpathian mountain passes to Austria-Hungary. The central powers evacuated the remnant territories of Romania.

4.2.2.1. Battle of Transylvania

Was the first major operation of Romania against Austria-Hungary during World War I.

4.2.3. Kerensky Offensive

Was the last Russian offensive of World War I. Starting on July 1, 1917 the Russian troops attacked the Austro-Germans in Galicia, pushing toward Lviv.

  • July 1917: The Russian line collapsed altogether by July 16. On the 18th the Austro-Germans counterattacked, meeting little resistance and advancing through Galicia and Ukraine until the Zbruch River.
  • July 1917: The Russians retreated about 240 kilometers in the territory of modern-day Ukraine.

4.3. World War I Italian Theatre

Involved a series of battles at the border between Austria-Hungary and Italy, fought between 1915 and 1918 in the course of World War I.

  • June 1916: Limit of Austrian advance from Tyrol.
  • June 1916: In 1916, during World War I, the Austrians voluntarily withdrew to the defensive line in Tyrol, known as the "Line of Demarcation."

4.3.1. Battle of Caporetto

The Battle of Caporetto (also known as the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo) was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Central Powers. It was the most serious defeat in the history of the Italian army, leading to the retreat of the entire Italian army as far as the Piave river.

  • October 1917: Conquests by Austrian and German forces following the Battle of Caporetto, or the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo. The battle was fought on the Italian front of World War I, between the combined forces of the Austro-Hungarian and German armies against the Italian Royal Army. The attack, which began on October 24, 1917, led to the most severe defeat in the history of the Italian army, the collapse of entire army corps, and the retreat of the entire Italian army to the Piave River.
  • November 1917: Conquests by Austrian and German forces following the Battle of Caporetto, or the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo. The battle was fought on the Italian front of World War I, between the combined forces of the Austro-Hungarian and German armies against the Italian Royal Army. The attack, which began on October 24, 1917, led to the most severe defeat in the history of the Italian army, the collapse of entire army corps, and the retreat of the entire Italian army to the Piave River.
  • November 1917: Conquests by Austrian and German forces following the Battle of Caporetto, or the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo. The battle was fought on the Italian front of World War I, between the combined forces of the Austro-Hungarian and German armies against the Italian Royal Army. The attack, which began on October 24, 1917, led to the most severe defeat in the history of the Italian army, the collapse of entire army corps, and the retreat of the entire Italian army to the Piave River.
  • November 1917: Conquests by Austrian and German forces following the Battle of Caporetto, or the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo. The battle was fought on the Italian front of World War I, between the combined forces of the Austro-Hungarian and German armies against the Italian Royal Army. The attack, which began on October 24, 1917, led to the most severe defeat in the history of the Italian army, the collapse of entire army corps, and the retreat of the entire Italian army to the Piave River.
  • November 1917: Conquests by Austrian and German forces following the Battle of Caporetto, or the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo. The battle was fought on the Italian front of World War I, between the combined forces of the Austro-Hungarian and German armies against the Italian Royal Army. The attack, which began on October 24, 1917, led to the most severe defeat in the history of the Italian army, the collapse of entire army corps, and the retreat of the entire Italian army to the Piave River.
  • November 1917: Conquests by Austrian and German forces following the Battle of Caporetto, or the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo. The battle was fought on the Italian front of World War I, between the combined forces of the Austro-Hungarian and German armies against the Italian Royal Army. The attack, which began on October 24, 1917, led to the most severe defeat in the history of the Italian army, the collapse of entire army corps, and the retreat of the entire Italian army to the Piave River.
  • November 1917: Conquests by Austrian and German forces following the Battle of Caporetto, or the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo. The battle was fought on the Italian front of World War I, between the combined forces of the Austro-Hungarian and German armies against the Italian Royal Army. The attack, which began on October 24, 1917, led to the most severe defeat in the history of the Italian army, the collapse of entire army corps, and the retreat of the entire Italian army to the Piave River.

4.3.2. Battle of Vittorio Veneto

It was the last armed clash between Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire during the First World War.

  • October 1918: Conquests by the Italian Kingdom after the battle of Vittorio Veneto.
  • October 1918: Conquests by the Italian Kingdom after the battle of Vittorio Veneto.
  • November 1918: Conquests by the Italian Kingdom after the battle of Vittorio Veneto.
  • November 1918: Conquests by the Italian Kingdom after the battle of Vittorio Veneto.

4.4. Aftermath of World War I

Were a series of treaties and military events that can be considered a direct consequence of World War I.

  • November 1918: The Banat Republic was proclaimed on November 1, 1918 in Timisoara in the area of ​​the historical Banat.

4.4.1. Aftermath of World War I in Poland

Events that happened shortly after the end of World War I in Poland.

  • January 1917: Poland was officially established on January 14, 1917 in the territories of the former Congress Kingdom, with the aim of legitimizing the German occupation of Poland.

4.4.2. Aftermath of World War I in Yugoslavia

Events that happened shortly after the end of World War I in Yugoslavia.

  • December 1918: Thirty-three days after it was proclaimed, the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs joined the Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

4.4.3. Treaty of St Germain

Was a treaty that settled the dissolution of Austria-Hungary after World War I.

  • September 1919: After World War I, the southern half of the former Tyrolean crownland up to the Brenner Pass, including predominantly German-speaking South Tyrol and the present-day Trentino province, together with the Carinthian Canal Valley around Tarvisio fell to Italy, as well as the Austrian Littoral (Gorizia and Gradisca, the Imperial Free City of Trieste, and Istria as recognized by the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920).

5. Russian Civil War

Was a Civil War in Russia that involved varios factions but mainly the Bolsheviks and the conservative White Army in the core Russian territories, as well as a multitude of local secessionist states. At the end of war the Bolsheviks were victorious and established the Soviet Union.

5.1. Ukrainian-Soviet War

Was a conflict between Ukrainian nationalist forces and the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War. It also included a multitude of ethnical and local factions.

  • November 1918: The West Ukrainian People's Republic was proclaimed.

6. Further events (Unrelated to Any War)

  • October 1908: Bosnia is annexed by Austria-Hungary.

Disestablishment

  • September 1919: After World War I, the southern half of the former Tyrolean crownland up to the Brenner Pass, including predominantly German-speaking South Tyrol and the present-day Trentino province, together with the Carinthian Canal Valley around Tarvisio fell to Italy, as well as the Austrian Littoral (Gorizia and Gradisca, the Imperial Free City of Trieste, and Istria as recognized by the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920).

Selected Sources

  • Cook, C. / Stevenson, J. (2006): The Routledge Companion to World History since 1914, Routledge, p.4
  • Favre, F. (2008): La Marina nella Grande Guerra, Udine, Gaspari, pp. 140-141
  • Northeastern Italy, 1915 - 1917 - The Battle of Caporetto, 24 October - 12 November 1917. United States Military Academy West Point. Retrieved on March, 26th, 2024 on https://www.westpoint.edu/sites/default/files/inline-images/academics/academic_departments/history/WWI/WWOne15.gif
  • The Battle of Vittorio Veneto, Situation 24 October- 4 November 1918. United States Military Academy West Point. Retrieved on March, 26th, 2024 on https://www.westpoint.edu/sites/default/files/inline-images/academics/academic_departments/history/WWI/WWOne20.jpg
  • The Times (1917): History of the War - vol. XII, London (UK), p. 35.
  • Treaty of Bucharest (1918), https://web.archive.org/web/20130223024635/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/routreat.html