If you are looking for the page with the statistics about this nation you can find it here: All Statistics
The cluster of Spain includes all the forms of Spain from the personal Union of Castile and Aragon emerged in 1479 to modern-day Spain.
The cluster includes the following incarnations of the same nation:
Personal Union of Aragon and Castile
Personal Union of Aragon and Castile (Habsburg)
Kingdom of Spain
First Spanish Republic
Second Spanish Republic
Spanish State
Establishment
January 1479: Personal Union of Aragon and Castile.
January 1479: In 1469, Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon were married, uniting the crowns of their respective kingdoms. This union eventually led to the formation of the powerful Spanish Empire.
September 1479: With the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479 Castile, while retaining her rights in the Canaries, recognized the Portuguese monopoly of fishing and navigation along the whole west African coast and Portugal's rights over the Madeira, Azores and Cape Verde islands.
Chronology
Interactive Chronologies with maps are available in the section Changes Navigation
1475 - 4 September 1479: military conflict contested from 1475 to 1479 for the succession of the Crown of Castile fought between the supporters of Joanna 'la Beltraneja', reputed daughter of the late monarch Henry IV of Castile, and those of Henry's half-sister, Isabella, who was ultimately successful.
Was a Castilian military campaign that resulted in the conquest of teh Canary Islands.
2.1.Conquista realenga
Was the phase of the conquest of the Canary Islands when the military operations were led by the united Crowns of Castile and Aragon.
2.1.1.Conquest of Gran Canaria
Was the Spanish conquest of the island of Gran Canaria, in the Canary islands.
April 1483: On 29 April 1483 Guayarmina Semidán, considered to be queen of Gran Canaria, surrendered at Ansite Fortress. On the same day Chief Bentejuí and his shaman-advisor Faycán committed suicide by jumping off a cliff while shouting Atis Tirma (for my land).
2.1.2.Conquest of La Palma
Was the Spanish conquest of the island of La Palma, in the Canary islands.
September 1492: The campaign was relatively easy, commencing on 29 September 1492 when the Castilians landed in Tazacorte.
May 1493: La Palma conquered by Aragon.
2.1.3.Conquest of Tenerife
Was the Spanish conquest of the island of Tenerife, in the Canary islands.
May 1494: Castilian invading force set sail from Gran Canaria in April 1494 and landed on the coast of present-day Santa Cruz de Tenerife.
November 1494: In 1494, Alonso Fernández de Lugo, a Spanish conquistador, defeated the Guanche leader Bencomo in the Battle of Aguere in San Cristóbal de La Laguna.
December 1494: The Castilian victory in the Second Battle of Acentejo brought about the collapse of aboriginal resistance on the Island of Tenerife. The battle marked the conquest of the island and the end of the conquest of the Canary Islands.
Were a series military campaigns from the 8th century until 1492 by the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula to reconquer the region from the Islamic rulers that had conquered it during the Umayyad conquest of Hispania.
January 1486: Spanish conquest of Marbella and Ronda.
January 1488: Spanish conquest of Malaga.
January 1490: Spanish conquest of Almeria.
January 1490: Spanish conquest of Baza.
January 1490: Spanish conquest of Guadix.
January 1492: After the Spanish siege of Granada, Muhammad XII, the last Nasrid ruler of Granada, formally relinquished his sovereignty and surrendered his territories to Castile.
Were a series of expeditions and military campaigns by Spanish conquistadores and discoverers to conquer territories in central and southern America.
4.1.Voyages of Christopher Columbus
Between 1492 and 1504, Italian explorer Christopher Columbus led four Spanish transatlantic maritime expeditions in the Americas. The first voyage marked the European discovery of the American Continent and is also widely considered the end of the Middle Ages.
October 1492: Christopher Columbus took possession of the Island of Hispaniola.
October 1492: Christopher Columbus took possession of the island of Hispaniola.
January 1493: Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer, was the first European to see the islands of the Bahamas, making his first landfall in the 'New World' in 1492. Columbus's arrival marked the beginning of Spanish colonization in the Americas.
November 1493: Marie-Galante was the second island encountered by Christopher Columbus during his second voyage in 1493, after Dominica. The territory was eventually claimed by Spanish America.
November 1493: During his second expedition for America, Christopher Columbus discovered the small archipelago Îles des Saintes in 1493. The territory went to Spanish America.
November 1493: Christopher Columbus discovers the Island of Saint Martin.
November 1493: In 1493, Christopher Columbus likely saw the island of Sint Estatius, which later became part of Spanish America. Columbus was an Italian explorer who completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, opening the way for widespread European exploration and the eventual colonization of the Americas.
November 1493: In 1493, Christopher Columbus sighted the island of Saba during his second voyage to the Americas. Saba is a small Caribbean island that was eventually claimed by the Spanish as part of their territories in the Americas.
November 1493: In 1493, Christopher Columbus landed on Saint-Croix (Santa Cruz) during his second voyage to the Americas. He claimed the territory for Spanish America, marking the beginning of European colonization in the Caribbean.
December 1493: Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer sponsored by the Spanish monarchy, was the first European to see Guadeloupe in November 1493 during his second voyage to the Americas. He named the island after a Spanish monastery.
January 1494: Christopher Columbus sailed past St. John on his second voyage in 1493.
January 1494: Christopher Columbus arrives in Antigua (1493) and names the island in honour of the "Virgin of the Old Cathedral" found in Seville Cathedral in southern Spain.
January 1494: Vieques, a small island off the coast of Puerto Rico, was reportedly discovered by Christopher Columbus during his second voyage to the Americas in 1493. The territory was then claimed by Spanish America as part of their colonial holdings.
January 1494: In 1493, Christopher Columbus arrived at St. Christoph (now St. Kitts) and claimed the island for Spain during his second voyage to the Americas.
January 1495: The island of Jamaica came under Spanish rule in 1494 following the arrival of the famous explorer Christopher Columbus. Columbus claimed the territory for the Spanish crown during his second voyage to the Americas.
January 1499: In 1498, Christopher Columbus discovered and claimed Saint Barthélemy for Spain during his third voyage to the Americas. The island later became part of the Spanish America territory.
July 1502: Christopher Columbu discovered Las Guanajas Islands (Bay Islands, modern-day Honduras) on July 30, 1502. The Admiral named it 'Isle of Pines', and claimed it for Spain.
May 1503: The Cayman Islands were discovered by Christopher Columbus during his final voyage to the Americas in 1503. The territory was later claimed by Spanish America.
4.2.Spanish conquest of the Muisca
Was the conquest of the central Andean highlands of Colombia by the Spanish conquistadors.
May 1502: Santa Cruz was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1510: San Sebastián de Urabá, today Necoclí (Colombia), was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
October 1510: Santa María la Antigua del Darién, today Unguía (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
December 1510: Turbaco (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
March 1536: Jamundí (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
December 1536: Barrancabermeja (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: Gamarra (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: La Paz (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: Sabana de Torres (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: Chiriguaná (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: San Diego (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: San Martín (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: Urumita (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: Chimichagua (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: Tamalameque (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: Aguachica (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: La Gloria (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: Rionegro (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: San Juan del Cesar (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: La Jagua del Pilar (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: Puerto Wilches (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: Riohacha (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: Sompallón (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
January 1537: Villanueva (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
March 1537: Simacota (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
April 1537: Chipatá (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
April 1537: Vélez (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
April 1537: Spanish conquest of Funza (Bacatá).
May 1537: Aguada (Colombia) was founded by the Spanish during the conquest of the Muisca Confederation.
August 1537: Hunza conquered by spain.
September 1537: An expedition in the Tenza valley (Colombia) results in the Spanish conquest of the area.
September 1537: Sogamoso conquered by spain.
August 1538: Foundation of Bogotá by the Spanish.
August 1538: An alliance of Spanish and indigenous forces defeated the Muisca at the Battle of Tocarema.
April 1540: Decapitation of the last zaque Aquiminzaque, Hernán Pérez de Quesada. Aquiminzaque was the ruler of the Muisca Confederation in present-day Colombia. Hernán Pérez de Quesada was a Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that conquered the Muisca territory in 1540.
4.3.Spanish-Taíno War of San Juan-Borikén
Was a war between Spain and the native Tainos of Puerto Rico.
March 1511: Ponce de León led nearly a hundred Spaniards in a battle against the Taíno in modern-day Descalabrado (17°59′52″N 66°25′24″W).
March 1511: Spanish commander Ponce de León led an incursion into the domain of Urayoán Chief at Yahuecas.
April 1511: End of the incursion by Spanish commander Ponce de León in the domain of Urayoán Chief at Yahuecas.
June 1512: The Spanish raided the territories of the Taino Orocobix (present day municipalities of Aibonito, Orocovis, Barranquitas, Morovis and Corozal in Puerto Rico).
June 1512: Spanish commander Álvaro de Saavedra entered into the lands of Guayama.
June 1512: The Spanish army entered the domains of chief Agüeybana II in modern-day Guayanilla, Puerto Rico.
July 1512: The Spanish raided the territories of the Taino Orocobix (present day municipalities of Aibonito, Orocovis, Barranquitas, Morovis and Corozal in Puerto Rico).
July 1512: The Spanish forces left the lands of Guayama.
July 1512: The Spanish Army leaves the domains of chief Agüeybana II.
August 1512: In July, Spanish conquistador Juan Gil attacked the domain of Agüeybana II.
August 1512: In 1512, Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León led another incursion into the terrains of Orocobix, a region inhabited by the Taíno people in present-day Puerto Rico. This expedition was part of the Spanish colonization efforts in the Caribbean.
September 1512: In 1512, Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León led another incursion into the terrains of Orocobix, a region inhabited by the Taíno people in present-day Puerto Rico. This expedition was part of the Spanish colonization efforts in the Caribbean.
February 1513: The Spanish led by Diego Guilarte de Salazar conquered Guánica, where they set camp.
June 1513: In 1513, the Taíno people launched a devastating attack on Caparra, the Spanish capital of the main island. Caparra was founded by Juan Ponce de León and served as an important settlement in Puerto Rico. The attack marked a significant event in the conflict between the Spanish colonizers and the indigenous Taíno population.
July 1513: The lands of chieftain Orocobix (present day municipalities of Aibonito, Orocovis, Barranquitas, Morovis and Corozal in Puerto Rico) were incursioned by Spanish forces.
August 1513: Spanish forces led by Diego Colón and Juan González entered the lands of Guayaney tribe (modern-day Luqullo and Humacao in Puerto Rico).
September 1513: Spanish commander Alonso de Mendoza led an incursion into the lands of Chief Hayuya.
October 1513: End of the incursion by Spanish forces in the lands of Hayuya Chief.
November 1513: In 1513, Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León led an incursion against the indigenous Taino settlement of Jayuya in present-day Puerto Rico. This was part of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
January 1516: Between 1514 and 1515, the Spanish made advances into the Daguao, pushing the Taínos to seek refuge in the Lesser Antilles, with the presence of Agüeybana II being reported at Guadeloupe. Puerto Rico was completely submitted by the Spanish.
4.4.Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
Was a military campaign waged by Spanish conquistarod Hernán Cortés along with indigenous allies to conquer the Aztec Empire.
May 1519: Hernán Cortés, a Spanish conquistador, landed his expedition force on the coast of modern-day Veracruz in April 1519.
September 1519: On their arrival in Cempoala, the Spaniards were greeted by 20 dignitaries and cheering townsfolk. Spanish conquistado Cortés quickly persuaded the Totonac chiefs to rebel against the Aztecs, taking prisoner five of Moctezuma's tax collectors.
September 1519: On their arrival in Cempoala, the Spanish were greeted by 20 dignitaries and cheering townsfolk.
October 1519: The Tlaxcala entered a vassalage-alliance with the Spanish.
November 1519: By 14 November 1519 Tenochtitlan was in Spanish hands and Moctezuma was Cortés' prisoner as insurance against any further resistance.
December 1519: The Spanish led by Cortés entered Cholula. The city was taken without active resistance by the locals.
July 1520: After the massacre in the great temple, led by Hernán Cortés and his men, the Spanish forces retreated from Tenochtitlan in 1520. The Aztec Empire, under the leadership of Emperor Moctezuma II, faced a significant challenge as they regrouped and strategized with their allies in Tlaxcala.
January 1521: In 1520, Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés led the conquest of Cempoala, a city in present-day Mexico. Cempoala was an important Totonac settlement and played a key role in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. The conquest of Cempoala marked a significant victory for the Spanish in their colonization of the Americas.
August 1521: The Fall of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, was a decisive event in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.
January 1522: By 1510 most of the Caribbean was already under Spanish control.
January 1522: In 1521, Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes led the conquest of Tututepec, a powerful Mixtec city in present-day Mexico. The territory was then incorporated into the Spanish America colony, marking the beginning of Spanish colonization in the region.
January 1522: In 1521, the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes led the conquest of Tilantongo, a powerful Mixtec city in present-day Mexico. The territory was then incorporated into the Spanish America colony, marking the beginning of Spanish rule in the region.
January 1522: At the time of the Spanish conquest, Cuilapan was a large multi-ethnic population center of 43,000 people and one of the centers of the political, economic and cultural life of the central valleys of Oaxaca.
January 1522: In 1521, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés led the conquest of Tlaxiaco, a town in present-day Mexico. This event marked the incorporation of Tlaxiaco into the Spanish America territory, as part of the larger Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.
January 1522: In 1521, Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes led the conquest of Mitla, a Zapotec archaeological site in present-day Mexico. This marked the incorporation of Mitla into the Spanish America territory, as part of the larger colonization efforts in the region.
January 1522: Conquest of central Mexico by Spanish conquistadores (1519-21).
January 1522: In 1521, Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes led the conquest of Juxtlahuaca, a region in present-day Mexico.
4.5.Spanish conquest of Guatemala
Was a protracted conflict where Spanish colonisers gradually incorporated the territory that became the modern country of Guatemala into the colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain.
January 1523: In 1522 Spanish conquistador Cortés sent Mexican allies to scout the Soconusco region of lowland Chiapas, where they met new delegations from Iximche and Qʼumarkaj at Tuxpán. Both of the powerful highland Maya kingdoms declared their loyalty to the king of Spain.
February 1524: On 8 February 1524 Alvarado's army fought a battle at Xetulul, called Zapotitlán by his Mexican allies. Although suffering many injuries inflicted by defending Kʼicheʼ archers, the Spanish and their allies stormed the town and set up camp in the marketplace.
February 1524: Battle of Zapotitlán (modern-day department of Suchitepéquez): Spanish victory over the K'iche '.
April 1524: In 1524, the Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado led the conquest of the K'iche' people in the territories of Retalhuleu, Suchitepéquez, Quetzaltenango, Totonicapán, and El Quiché in present-day Guatemala. This marked a significant victory for the Spanish in their colonization of Spanish America.
April 1524: Pedro de Alvarado was a Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that destroyed the K'iche' capital of Q'umarkaj in 1524. The K'iche' were a powerful indigenous group in the Quiche region of Spanish America.
April 1524: Iximché, the main city of the Kaqchikel Maya people, was conquered by the Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado in 1524. The Kaqchikels became Spanish vassals.
April 1524: In 1524, Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado led the defeat of the Tzʼutujil Kingdom on the shores of Lake Atitlán in present-day Guatemala. This marked the incorporation of the territory into the Spanish America colonial empire.
May 1524: Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado defeats the Pipil of Panacal or Panacaltepeque near Izcuintepeque. On 8 May 1524, soon after his arrival in Iximche and immediately following his subsequent conquest of the Tzʼutujil around Lake Atitlán, Pedro de Alvarado continued southwards to the Pacific coastal plain with an army numbering approximately 6000, where he defeated the Pipil of Panacal or Panacaltepeque near Izcuintepeque on 9 May. According to Alvarado's letter to Cortés, the Pipil came back to the town and submitted to him, accepting the king of Spain as their overlord.
May 1524: Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado defeated the Panacal or Panacaltepeque pipiles near Izcuintepeque.
May 1524: Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado defeated the Xincas of Atiquipaque.
May 1524: In 1524, Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado defeated the Xinca people of Atiquipaque in the Xinca Kingdom, located in the Taxisco area.
August 1524: The Kaqchikel abandoned their capital in Iximche and broke their alliance with the Spanish conquistadors.
January 1525: Santiago de Guatemala is occupied by Spanish forces (1524).
November 1525: Zaculeu, the capital of the Mam people, surrended to Gonzalo de Alvarado y Contreras after a prolonged siege.
November 1525: Zaculeu, capital of the Mam, surrenders to the Spanish led by Gonzalo de Alvarado y Contreras after a lengthy siege.
January 1526: Pedro de Alvarado was a Spanish conquistador who played a key role in the Spanish conquest of Central America. The Poqomam Kingdom was a Maya civilization located in present-day Guatemala. Alvarado's capture of the Poqomam capital in 1525 was a significant event in the Spanish colonization of the region.
January 1527: In 1526, Spanish captains sent by Pedro de Alvarado, a Spanish conquistador, conquered Chiquimula, a region in present-day Guatemala.
January 1527: In 1526, Spanish captains sent by conquistador Pedro de Alvarado successfully conquered the Chiquimula region in present-day Guatemala. Alvarado was a prominent Spanish conquistador who played a key role in the conquest of Central America.
May 1530: In 1530, the Kaqchikel Kingdom, led by their ruler Tecún Umán, surrendered to the Spanish conquistadors in what is now Spanish America. This marked the beginning of Spanish colonization in the region.
January 1696: In 1695, Spanish conquistadors led by Captain Martín de Ursúa, along with indigenous allies, launched a three-way invasion of the Lacandon region from San Mateo Ixtatán, Cobán, and Ocosingo. This marked the beginning of Spanish colonization in the area, which was part of Spanish America at the time.
March 1697: Nojpetén surrendered to the Spanish after a fierce battle.
4.6.Spanish Conquest of Nicaragua
Were a series of military campaigns waged by Spain to gradually conquer modern-day Nicaragua.
February 1523: On 27 February 1523, Niño put to shore at El Realejo, where Captain Antón Mayor formally took possession of the territory in the name of the Spanish crown, the first Spanish act in the territory of what is now Nicaragua.
March 1523: In 1523, Spanish explorer Gil González de Ávila, under the command of Hernán Cortés, sailed to the Gulf of Fonseca. He made landfall on an island on March 5, naming the Gulf in honor of Spanish bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca.
March 1524: In 1524, Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés advanced to Tezoatega (now El Viejo, Chinandega - Nicaragua).
November 1524: In 1524, Spanish conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded the colonial towns of León and Granada in present-day Nicaragua.
January 1544: Spanish Conquistador Francisco de Castañeda founded Nueva Segovia in north-central Nicaragua.
January 1604: In 1603, Spanish conquistador Diego de Ospina led the colonization of the region of Segovia, which is now part of modern-day Colombia. The indigenous settlements in the area were brought under Spanish control, marking the beginning of Spanish influence in the region.
4.7.Iguape War
Was a war between the Spanish Empire and Portuguese Empire that started when some Spaniards, led by Ruy Garcia de Moschera, established themselves around the city of Vicentina in Brazil.
November 1529: Due to the interpretation of the Treaty of Tordesilhas, some Spaniards, led by Ruy Garcia de Moschera, established themselves around Vicentina.
January 1537: In 1536, Spanish conquistadors Pedro de Mendoza and Juan de Ayolas founded a town in Vicentina, Brazil. They came into conflict with the Crown of Portugal over territorial claims, leading them to retreat back to the Río de la Plata region.
4.8.Spanish conquest of Yucatán
Was a protracted conflict where Spanish colonisers gradually incorporated the region of Yucatán.
January 1532: In 1531 the Spanish moved their base of operations to Campeche, where they repulsed a significant Maya attack.
April 1535: In 1535, the Spanish conquistadors, led by Francisco de Montejo, retreated from Campeche after facing fierce resistance from the Mayan people. This marked a significant setback in their efforts to conquer the Yucatan Peninsula.
January 1543: In 1541-42 the first permanent Spanish town councils in the entire Yucatán peninsula were founded at Campeche and Mérida.
November 1546: In late 1546 an alliance of eastern provinces launched an unsuccessful uprising against the Spanish. The eastern Maya were defeated in a single battle, which marked the final conquest of the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula.
4.9.Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
Were a series of Spanish military campaigns to conquer the Inca Empire, that controlled modern-day Peru.
January 1533: The Battle of Cajamarca on November 16, 1532, ended the Inca Empire and gave Spain control of Peru, then the wealthiest region of Latin America.
August 1533: The Spaniards executed Inca emperor Atahualpa in August 1533 and annexed the Inca Empire.
January 1537: Manco Inca retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State, where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them.
January 1538: After being defeated by the Spanish conquistadores, Manco Inca, the leader of the Inca resistance, retreated the remote jungles of Vilcabamba.
June 1572: On June 23 the fort of Huayna Pucará surrendered to Spanish artillery fire. The Inca army now in retreat opted to abandon their last city and head for the jungle to regroup. On June 24 the Spanish entered Vilcabamba.
September 1572: Túpac Amaru, having taken refuge in the jungle to continue the fight, was finally captured and executed by the Spaniards.
4.10.Mixtón War
Was a rebellion by the Caxcan people of northwestern Mexico against the Spanish conquerors. The war was named after Mixtón, a hill in Zacatecas which served as an Indigenous stronghold.
November 1541: The Spanish authorities assembled a force of 450 Spaniards and 30 to 60 thousand Aztec, Tlaxcalan and other Indians and under Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza invaded the land of the Caxcanes. With his overwhelming force, Mendoza reduced the Indian strongholds one-by-one in a war of no quarter. On November 9, 1541, he captured the city of Nochistlan and Tenamaztle.
April 1542: In early 1542 the stronghold of Mixtón fell to the Spaniards and the rebellion was over. Victory in the Mixtón War enabled the Spanish to control all the territories of the Caxcanes.
The Conquest of Melilla occurred in September 1497, when a fleet sent by the Duke of Medina Sidonia (the precise involvement of the Catholic Monarchs in the operation is disputed in historiography) seized the north African city of Melilla.
October 1497: The Conquest of Melilla occurred in September 1497, when a fleet sent by the Duke of Medina Sidonia (the precise involvement of the Catholic Monarchs in the operation is a moot point in historiography) seized the north African city of Melilla.
Were a series of conflicts covering the period between 1494 to 1559, fought mostly in the Italian peninsula, but later expanding into Flanders, the Rhineland and the Mediterranean Sea. The primary belligerents were the Valois kings of France, and their Habsburg opponents in the Holy Roman Empire and Spain.
6.1.Italian War of 1499-1504
Was the second of the so-called Italian Wars. The first phase of the war was fought for control of the Duchy of Milan by an alliance of Louis XII of France and the Republic of Venice against Ludovico Sforza, the second between Louis of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon for possession of the Kingdom of Naples.
6.1.1.Spanish conquest of Naples
The Kingdom of Naples was occupied by Spanish forces.
May 1503: Soon disagreements arose among the occupiers on the methods of partition. Ferdinand's insistence on being recognized as king of both Naples and Sicily immediately led to a war between France and Spain. Defeated at Cerignola and Garigliano by the Spaniards commanded by Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Luigi was forced to abandon Naples and retreat to Lombardy. Naples was occupied by the Spanish on May 16, 1503.
6.2.War of the League of Cambrai
Was one of the so-called Italian wars.
6.2.1.First Phase - The league of Cambrai
Was the first phase of the War of the League of Cambrai, one of the so-called Italian Wars.
6.2.1.1.French invasion of Venice (War of the League of Cambrai)
Was a French invasion of the Republic of Venice during the War of the League of Cambrai.
January 1510: In the south of the Italian peninsula, Ferdinand II of Aragon reconquered the ports of Puglia.
6.2.2.Fourth Phase - Alliance between Venice and France
Was the fourth phase of the War of the League of Cambrai, one of the so-called Italian Wars.
September 1513: While the Spaniards were unable to conquer Padua thanks to the determined Venetian resistance, they penetrated deep into Venetian territory and towards the end of September they were in sight of Venice.
October 1513: Venetian captain Alviano's army, having been reinforced by hundreds of volunteers from the Venetian nobility, pursued the Spanish led by Cardona and confronted him outside Vicenza on 7 October.
January 1514: In Navarre, resistance to Fernando of Aragon's invasion collapsed and he quickly consolidated his power over the whole region.
September 1515: The morning of 14 September 1515 resulted in a strategically decisive victory for King Francis I of France and the Republic of Venice, allowing them to retake all of the Duchy of Milan from the Swiss forces.
6.3.Italian War of 1521-1526
Was one of the so-called Italian wars. The war pitted Francis I of France and the Republic of Venice against the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Henry VIII of England, and the Papal States.
November 1521: Franco-Navarrese troops led by Bonnivet and Claudius I of Guise captured the key city of Fuenterrabia, at the mouth of the Bidasoa river on the Franco-Spanish border.
March 1524: Charles V of Spain was able to retake Fuenterrabia from the French in February 1524.
6.3.1.French invasion of Navarre
Was a French military campaign in Navarre during the Italian War of 1521-1526.
May 1521: In 1521, during the Spanish conquest of Navarre, General André de Foix led the French forces to conquer Pamplona.
June 1521: The french left Navarre after the battle of Noáin on June 30.
6.4.War of the League of Cognac
Was one of the so-called Italian Wars. It was fought between the Habsburg dominions of Charles V —primarily the Holy Roman Empire and Spain— and the League of Cognac, an alliance including the Kingdom of France, Pope Clement VII, the Republic of Venice, the Kingdom of England, the Duchy of Milan, and the Republic of Florence.
January 1530: The remaining Venetian possessions in Apulia went to Charles of Naples.
6.4.1.French Invasion of Naples (War of the League of Cognac)
Was the French invasion of Naples during the War of the League of Cognac.
May 1528: Siege of Naples.
August 1528: An epidemic in Naples in 1528 led to the retreat of the French army from the region.
6.5.Italian War of 1536-1538
Was one of the so-called Italian Wars. It was a conflict between King Francis I of France and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. The objective was to achieve control over territories in Northern Italy, in particular the Duchy of Milan.
July 1537: Ottoman troops were landed in Otranto from their encampment in Valona.
August 1537: The Ottomans leave Otranto.
6.6.Italian War of 1551-1559
Was one of the so-called Italian Wars.
6.6.1.Mediterranean campaigns
Was a French and Ottoman naval campaign during the Italian War of 1551-1559.
January 1553: In 1552, when Henry II attacked Charles V, the Ottomans sent 100 galleys to the Western Mediterranean, which were accompanied by three French galleys under Gabriel de Luetz d'Aramon in their raids along the coast of Calabria in Southern Italy, capturing the city of Reggio.
February 1553: In 1552, when Henry II attacked Charles V, the Ottomans sent 100 galleys to the Western Mediterranean, which were accompanied by three French galleys under Gabriel de Luetz d'Aramon in their raids along the coast of Calabria in Southern Italy, capturing the city of Reggio.
6.6.1.1.Ottoman invasion of the Balearic Islands
Was the Ottoman invasion of Corsica during the Italian War of 1551-1559.
July 1558: The Ottomans attacked the citadel of Ciutadella in Menorca, which was only garrisoned with 40 soldiers.
August 1558: The Ottomans under Piyale Pasha and Turgut Reis put the town of Minorca under siege for eight days, then entered and decimated the town.
6.6.2.Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis
Was the treaty that ended the Italian War of 1551-1559, the last of the Italian Wars (1494-1559).
January 1557: The territory of Saint Quentin, Ham, Le Catele were seized by Spain during the Italian War of 1551-1559.
April 1559: With the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, Spain gave Saint Quentin, Ham, Le Catelet and other places back to France.
Were a series of military campaigns of the Aztec Empire that led to the expansion of the empire.
January 1521: Conquests of Moctezuma II, ruler of the Aztec Empire.
Conquests and wars with Ottoman involvement during the rule of Suleiman I.
January 1526: The Ottomans recaptured Alger definitively in 1525.
January 1541: Annaba is acquired by the Ottoman Empire.
January 1542: In 1541, the city of Biskra was conquered by the Ottoman Empire under the leadership of Hayreddin Barbarossa, a famous Ottoman admiral and privateer.
October 1555: In 1555, the Ottomans, supported by the Kabyles, won the Battle of Béjaia and liberated the city from Spanish occupation.
January 1557: In 1556, the Turkish corsair Dragut, who ruled in Tripoli, attacked Tunisia from the east. He successfully entered Kairouan in 1558, further expanding the Ottoman Empire's territory in North Africa.
January 1561: The Tunisian Island of Djerba was controlled by Spanish forces from 1521 to 1524 and from 1559 to 1560. The Spanish called the Island Yerba.
January 1562: Tripoli was besieged and conquered by famed Ottoman admirals Sinan Pasha and Turgut Reis. Declared as Bey and later Pasha of Tripoli, Turgut Reis submitted the tribes of the interior and several cities like Misrata, Zuwara, Gharyan, and Gafsa in the next decade.
8.1.Ottoman-Venetian War (1537-1540)
Was one of the Ottoman-Venetian wars which took place during the 16th century.
Expansion during the rule of Selim II in the Ottoman Empire.
January 1570: The Ottomans again conquered Tunis in 1569 and held it for four years.
January 1570: In 1569, the territory of Tunis was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. In 1573-1574, Spanish forces attempted to regain control of Tunis, but were ultimately unsuccessful in their campaign.
September 1574: The Conquest of Tunis in 1574 marked the final conquest of Tunis by the Ottoman Empire over the Spanish Empire.
9.1.Conquest of Tunis (1574)
Was the Ottoman conquest of Tunis, controlled by Spain at the time.
September 1574: Final conquest of Tunis by the Ottoman Empire over the Spanish Empire. This was an event of great significance as it decided that North Africa would be under Muslim rather than Christian rule.
Were a series of wars in Europe (and the overseas possessions of European countries) the 16th, 17th and early 18th that started after the Protestant Reformation. Although the immediate causes of the wars were religious, the motives were complex and also included territorial ambitions.
10.1.Eighty Years' War
Was the intermittent war of independence of the Dutch Republic, a breakaway state from the Spanish Netherlands. .
10.1.1.Dutch revolt and establishment of the Dutch Republic
Was the revolt of northern protestant regions of the Spanish Neterlands (the southern part was mainly Catholic) that led to the creation of the Dutch Republic.
10.1.1.1.Dutch Revolt
Was the revolt of the northern Spanish Netherland which later led to the formation of the Dutch Republic.
April 1572: The Dutch Rebels Captured the city of Brill on 1 April 1572.
May 1572: The news of the capture of Brill by the Dutch Rebels, led by William the Silent, prompted the cities of Flushing and Veere to join the rebellion against Spanish rule on 3 May 1572. This marked a significant turning point in the Eighty Years' War for Dutch independence.
May 1572: Louis of Nassau, a Dutch nobleman and brother of William the Silent, led the Dutch Rebels in capturing Mons on May 24, 1572.
July 1572: In 1572, during the Eighty Years' War, the cities of Oudewater, Gouda, Gorinchem, and Dordrecht surrendered to Admiral Lumey, a Dutch rebel leader fighting against Spanish rule in the Netherlands. This marked a significant victory for the Dutch Rebels in their struggle for independence.
July 1572: Leiden, a city in the Netherlands, declared itself for William of Orange in a spontaneous revolt against Spanish rule in 1572.
July 1572: In 1572, Diederik Sonoy, a Dutch rebel leader, successfully persuaded the cities of Enkhuizen, Hoorn, Medemblik, Edam, Haarlem, and Alkmaar to defect to William of Orange's side during the Eighty Years' War against Spanish rule.
July 1572: Holland and Zeeland were in rebellion against Spanish rule. Amsterdam and Schoonhoven were the only major cities that remained loyal to the Spanish Crown.
January 1573: Count Willem IV van den Bergh was a Dutch nobleman and military leader who fought alongside his brother-in-law, William of Orange, in the Eighty Years' War against Spanish rule. In 1572, he successfully captured the city of Zutphen from the Spanish forces, marking a significant victory for the Dutch rebels.
January 1573: Cities in Gelderland and neighbouring Overijssel joined the Dutch revolt against Spain.
July 1573: The city of Haarlem was under siege by the Spanish forces led by the Duke of Alba. The defenders, including Kenau Simonsdochter Hasselaer, held out for over six months before surrendering due to starvation. This event was part of the Eighty Years' War between the Dutch rebels and the Spanish Empire.
January 1575: Fall of Middelburg to the Dutch Rebels during the Eighty Years' War.
July 1579: In 1579 the city was sacked by the Spanish army led by the Duke of Parma (Siege of Maastricht, 1579). For over fifty years the Spanish crown took over the role previously held by the dukes of Brabant in the joint sovereignty over Maastricht.
10.1.1.2.The Union of Utrecht
Was a treaty signed on 23 January 1579 in Utrecht, Netherlands, unifying the northern provinces of the Spanish Netherlands.
January 1579: The treaty for the formation of the Union of Utrecht was signed by the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht (excluding some areas), and Groningen (excluding the city).
May 1579: Catholic Walloon provinces signed their own defensive Union of Arras on 6 January 1579. Grievances against Spain of Catholics who were becoming more and more concerned about Calvinist violence were satisfied and they could make a separate peace in the form of the Treaty of Arras in May 1579. All the cities of the union of arras that were still at war with spain renewed their allegiance to Spain.
September 1579: In 1579, the cities of Amersfoort, Ypres, Antwerp, Breda, and Brussels joined the Union of Utrecht, a treaty signed by the northern provinces of the Netherlands to oppose Spanish rule. This alliance was led by William the Silent, Prince of Orange, and played a crucial role in the Dutch Revolt against Spanish control.
January 1580: During the following months of 1579, other states signed the treaty as well, such as Ghent, cities from Friesland, as well as three of the quarters of Guelders (Nijmegen Quarter, Veluwe Quarter, Zutphen County).
March 1580: In February 1580, the cities of Lier and Bruges, along with the surrounding area, joined the Union of Utrecht.
May 1580: In April 1580, Overijssel and Drenthe signed a treaty with the Union of Utrecht.
July 1580: Spanish forces managed to capture most of Groningen, Drenthe and Overijssel.
January 1581: In 1580, the city of Groningen shifted its allegiance to the Union of Utrecht under the influence of George van Rennenberg, the stadtholder for Friesland. This decision was significant as it strengthened the Union of Utrecht's position in the region.
July 1581: The Spanish military leader Alexander Farnese, also known as the Duke of Parma, successfully captured the town of Breda.
July 1581: Part of the Spanish Netherlands separated to form the autonomous Dutch Republic in 1581.
July 1581: Minor Spanish reconquests from the rebel Dutch state in 1581.
January 1583: The Spanish captured the fortress city of Steenwijk.
January 1584: The cities of Dunkirk and Nieuwpoort fell to the Spanish forces led by Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma.
May 1584: Ypres conquered by spain.
June 1584: Bruges conquered by spain.
October 1584: Ghent, cities from Friesland, as well as three of the quarters of Guelders (Nijmegen Quarter, Veluwe Quarter, Zutphen County) conquered by spain.
April 1585: Brussels, the capital of the Spanish Netherlands, surrendered to the Spanish forces led by Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma.
September 1585: Antwerp was besieged and it surrendered to the Spanish in August.
10.1.1.3.English Protectorate in the Netherlands
The Dutch rebels of the northern Spanish Netherlands became an English protectorate with the Treaty of Nonsuch, signed on 10 August 1585, as a measure of protection against Spain.
February 1587: In January 1587, the English garrisons led by Sir John Norreys at Deventer and Zutphen were bribed to defect to Spain by the Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, Alexander Farnese. This marked a significant loss for the English forces in the region, as they also lost control of Zwolle, Arnhem, and Ostend to the Spanish.
October 1587: English forces led by the Earl of Leicester (the English supported the Dutch Republic) occupied Gouda, Schoonhoven and a few other cities in September 1587.
10.1.1.4.Expansion of the Dutch Republic
Were a series of Dutch military actions during the Eighty Years' War that led to the expansion of the newly created Dutch Republic by conquering territories from the Spanish Netherlands.
March 1590: The city of Breda was recaptured by the Dutch Republic from the Spanish Empire.
January 1592: In 1591, Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, used his expanded army and innovative river transportation methods to conquer Zutphen and Deventer in the Netherlands, further expanding the territory of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands.
January 1592: A campaign led by Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, and his cousin William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg resulted in the conquest of Hulst and Nijmegen by the Dutch.
January 1593: Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, joined his cousin William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, in capturing the cities of Steenwijk and Coevorden in 1592.
January 1598: Maurice of Nassau first seized the fortress of Rheinberg, a strategic Rhine crossing, and subsequently Groenlo, Oldenzaal, and Enschede, before capturing the county of Lingen.
January 1605: In 1604, the stadtholders, Maurice of Nassau and Ambrosio Spinola, captured Spanish fortresses in Grave, Sluys, and Aardenburg.
January 1606: In 1605, Oldenzaal, a city in the Dutch Republic, was captured by Maurice of Nassau from the Spanish Netherlands.
January 1607: Lochem conquered by spain.
April 1609: A ceasefire was signed in Antwerp by Spain and the Dutch Republic, thus ending the Dutch Revolt starting the Twelve Years' Truce. Spain recognized the Dutch Republic with the borders of the current military situation.
10.2.Thirty Years' War
Was a war that took place mainly in central Europe between 1618 and 1648. The war began as a religious conflict between Catholics and Protestant in the Holy Roman Empire but then escalated into a conflict for the hegemony in Europe between Habsburg Spain and Austria, Sweden and France.
10.2.1.Bohemian-Palatine period
Was the first period of the Thirty Years' War. It started with a protestant revolt in Bohemia, at the time a territory of the Habsburg Domains.
10.2.1.1.War in Palatinate
Was the theatre of war in Palatinate during the first phase of the Thirty Years' War.
September 1620: Ambrosio Spinola was a Spanish general who led the military occupation of the Left Rhine territories of the Palatinate in 1620. Spinola was known for his successful campaigns in Flanders and was tasked with expanding Spanish control in the region.
June 1621: Frederick V, Elector Palatine and his wife Elizabeth Stuart withdrew to Flanders in the spring of 1621 after losing the Battle of White Mountain in the Left Rhine territories of the Palatinate.
10.2.1.2.War in Netherlands
Was the theatre of war in the Low Countries during the first phase of the Thirty Years' War.
June 1625: In June 1625, after a siege of almost a year, the Dutch city of Breda was forced to surrender.
10.2.2.Thirty Years' War Minor Scenarios
A series of conflicts related to the Thirty Years' War.
10.2.2.1.War of Valtellina
Was a war over the control of Valtellina (today in northern Italy) mainly between Spain and France.
August 1620: The Grisons were forced to retreat north of the Alps and the Valtellina was militarily invaded by the Spaniards.
10.2.2.2.Invasion of Franche Comté (Ten Years War)
Was French invasion of modern-day Franche-Comté, at the time a possession of the Habsburg, during the Thirty Years' War.
May 1636: The French army besiege Dole.
August 1636: As troops from the Holy Roman Empire, commanded by Charles IV of Lorraine, were approaching Dole, the Prince of Condé ordered the French army to end the siege of Dole and retreat.
March 1637: In 1637, during the Franco-Spanish War, the Comtois forces, led by French military leader Henri de Bourbon, Duke of Enghien, won the battles of Martignat and captured Oyonnax. However, due to a lack of sufficient troops, they were unable to hold onto the territory, which ultimately fell to the Spanish Netherlands.
March 1637: In 1637, during the Franco-Spanish War, the Comtois, led by Henri de Montmorency, returned home to Oyonnax, abandoning most of their conquests in the region.
April 1639: In 1639, during the Franco-Spanish War, the Count of Guébriant, a French military commander, seized Château-Vilain from the Spanish forces.
September 1639: After the death of the Duke of Saxe-Weimar in 1639, the Marquis de Saint-Martin, a French military leader, took over the territories of Nozeroy, Château-Vilain, and the Château de La Chaux.
January 1645: Following a treaty concluded with Cardinal Mazarin in 1644, France committed to cease hostilities in Franche-Comté, in exchange for the considerable sum of 40,000 écus, thus guaranteeing the region's neutrality once again. The year 1644 thus marked the end of the Ten Years' War in Franche-Comté.
10.2.3.Bündner Wirren
Was a war in in what is now the Swiss canton of Graubünden that started as a revolt by local Catholics against their Protestant overlords.
March 1626: The peace treaty of Monzon (5 March 1626) between France and Spain, confirmed the political and religious independence of the Valtellina.
10.2.4.First Genoese-Savoyard War
Was the theatre of war in Liguria during the Thirty Years' War.
September 1625: In 1625, the Spanish army occupied Acqui, a town in Italy.
November 1625: By October the Republic of genoa recuperated all the territories lost to the French (with the exception of the castle of La Penna) and additionally conquered Oneglia, Ormea, and a number of localities in Piedmont.
November 1625: In 1625, the Lérins Islands, including Île Sainte-Marguerite and Île Saint-Honorat, were conquered by the Spanish army. The islands are known for their historical significance, including being the location where the Man in the Iron Mask was imprisoned.
10.2.4.1.Treaty of Monzón
Was a treaty that ended the Veltellina War and the Ligurian theatre of War of the Thirty Years' War.
March 1637: The Spanish retained Île Sainte-Marguerite and Île Saint-Honorat until they were reconquered by the French admiral Philippe de Poincy.
10.2.5.Swedish Period
Was the third main period of the Thirty Years' War. It started with the intervention of the Kingdom of Sweden.
August 1632: Occupation of Trier by the French.
August 1632: The Dutch forces, led by Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, successfully captured the city of Maastricht from the Spanish occupiers in 1632.
March 1635: The Spaniards recapture Trier from the French.
10.2.6.Franco-Swedish Period
Was the fourth main period of the Thirty Years' War. It started with the intervention of the Kingdom of France.
October 1648: In 1648, a French expedition led by Sir du Mé annexed Îles des Saintes.
10.2.6.1.North German Front (Sweden)
Was the north German front during the Franco-Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War.
November 1648: When in November Gustaf of Sweden received a report about the signed peace, he ordered his troops to leave. Also the French troops started leaving the occupied territories in the Holy Roman Empire.
10.2.6.2.Low Countries Front (France)
Was the Low Countries front during the Franco-Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War.
January 1636: Spanish occupation of Philippsbourg, Speyer, Landau and Treviri.
January 1637: Lens is annexed by the Kingdom of France.
October 1637: Breda, a city in the southern Netherlands, surrendered to Prince Frederick Henry of Orange-Nassau, the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, after a six-month siege in 1637. This victory was a significant achievement for the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands in their ongoing struggle against the Spanish Habsburgs during the Eighty Years' War.
June 1639: In 1639, during the Franco-Spanish War, the French army led by Marshal Chatillon successfully captured the town of Hesdin in northern France after a failed attempt at Saint-Omer.
August 1640: Arras conquered by france.
October 1641: During the spring of 1641 and until September 1641, other Spanish strongholds, such as Aire-sur-la-Lys, Lens, Bapaume and La Bassée, fell to the French military occupation led by King Louis XIII and his chief minister Cardinal Richelieu.
August 1643: The siege of Thionville in 1643 was led by French military leader Louis II de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, against the Spanish-held city.
October 1646: Siege of Dunkirk.
August 1648: Archduke Leopold William of Habsburg captured Lens.
10.2.6.3.Rhineland Front (France)
Was the Rhineland front during the Franco-Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War.
July 1636: French conquest of Landrecies.
August 1636: Maubeuge conquered by france.
September 1636: French forces occupy La Capelle.
January 1637: Franche Comté conquered by france.
January 1637: Bohain conquered by france.
May 1648: The French returned to Swabia and then to Bavaria. They defeated the Imperial forces at Zusmarshausen (May 17, 1648) and drove Maximilian of Bavaria out of Munich.
10.2.6.4.Spanish Front (France)
Was the Spanish front during the Franco-Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War.
January 1637: In 1636, during the Thirty Years' War, Spain seized Saint-Jean-de-Luz, a strategic town in the Southwest of France.
September 1638: In 1638 the French army suffered a defeat at the Battle of Hondarribia in Fontarrabie, Basque Country. As a result, the territory fell under Spanish military occupation.
January 1641: Catalonia recognizes Louis XIII of France as Count of Barcelona and Roussillon. France sends an army, commanded by Lamothe to take possession of the new province. Several places are taken and the siege is put in front of Tarragona which is also blocked by the French fleet commanded by the Archbishop of Sourdis.
May 1641: The unsuccessful siege of Lérida in 1641 was led by Louis II de Bourbon, also known as Condé, a French military leader. The city was under Spanish occupation at the time, and the siege lasted from May 12 to June 17.
September 1642: Siege of Perpignan.
October 1642: Marshal de Lamothe was forced to evacuate Catalonia despite his success on October 7 against the Spaniards of Leganez at the Battle of Lérida.
May 1646: The French army besieged the city of Lérida from May 12, 1646.
November 1646: The Siege of Lérida ended on November 22, 1646. The French army left Catalonia.
May 1647: The Siege of Lérida in 1647 was a military campaign led by the French under the command of Grand Condé against the Spanish defenders. Despite the initial attack on May 12, the French were unable to capture the territory, resulting in a failed siege.
June 1647: The French siege of Barcelona, led by French military leader Philippe de La Mothe-Houdancourt, was lifted on June 17, 1647. This marked a significant victory for the Catalan forces and their allies in the ongoing conflict between France and the Personal Union of Aragon and Castile.
10.2.7.Peace of Westphalia
Were a series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War. Catholics and Protestants were redefined as equal in the territories of the Holy Roman Empire. There were major territorial adjustments. In particular, France, Sweden and Brandenburg had major territorial gains, and several religious territories of the Holy Roman Empire were secularized.
October 1648: Borders of the Dutch Republic at the end of the Thirty Years' War.
January 1649: In 1648, the territory of Bisanz (modern-day Besancon) was transferred to the Spanish Netherlands as part of the Treaty of Westphalia.
January 1649: Genova gave Pontremoli back to Spain.
10.3.Thirty Years' War aftermath wars
Were a series of wars that were a continuation of the Thirty Years' War.
10.3.1.Franco-Spanish War (1648-1659)
Was a war between Spain and France that ended with the Treaty of the Pyrenees of 1659.
November 1651: Barcelona fell to Catalan rebels supported by France.
November 1652: Spain recaptured Barcelona in October 1652.
January 1654: After fighting in Rousillon, the French retreated to the Pyrenees.
June 1658: Siege of Dunkirk.
November 1659: With the Treaty of the Pyrenees that ended the Franco-Spanish War (1635-1659), France gained French Flanders (Artois) and minor territories on the rhineland (f.e. thionville). The northern part of the Principality of Catalonia, including Roussillon, Conflent, Vallespir, Capcir, and French Cerdagne, was also transferred to France, i.e. what later came to be known as "Northern Catalonia".
10.4.Nine Years' War
Was a conflict between France and the Grand Alliance, a coalition including the Holy Roman Empire, the Dutch Republic, England, Spain, and Savoy. It is considered the first war that saw fighting globally because battles occured in Europe, America, Africa and India.
10.4.1.Pyrenean Theatre
Was the Pyrenean Theatre of the the Nine Years' War.
May 1690: The French forces, led by Marshal Noailles, successfully took control of the town of Camprodon in Catalonia, Spain.
September 1690: In 1690, a large Spanish army led by the Duke of Villahermosa forced the French to retreat back to Roussillon in August.
June 1693: The French led by Noailles secured the valuable seaport of Rosas in Catalonia.
June 1694: Hostalric conquered by france.
June 1694: The French proceeded to take Palamós on 10 June.
June 1694: Gerona conquered by france.
August 1697: In 1697, during the War of the Grand Alliance, French forces led by Vendôme, with troops from Italy, captured Barcelona in Catalonia. The garrison, commanded by Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt, surrendered on 10 August.
10.4.2.Low Countries Theatre (Nine Years' War)
Was the Low Countries Theatre of the the Nine Years' War.
April 1691: The French army captured Mons in the Spanish Netherlands.
May 1691: Luxembourg, a French military commander, captured the city of Halle in present-day Belgium at the end of May.
June 1692: In 1692, during the Nine Years' War, the French military under the command of Vauban invested the stronghold of Namur on 29 May. The town fell quickly, but the citadel, defended by the Dutch military engineer Menno van Coehoorn, held out until 30 June.
September 1695: Loss of Namur.
June 1697: French forces besieged the city of Ath in present-day Belgium. The siege ended with the city falling under French military occupation.
10.4.3.South American theatre (Nine Years' War)
Was the South American Theatre of the the Nine Years' War.
May 1697: Raid on Cartagena was a successful attack by the French on the fortified city of Cartagena de Indias, as part of the War of the Grand Alliance.
May 1697: During the War of the Grand Alliance, French privateer Baron de Pointis, along with French Admiral Jean du Casse, led an attack on the Spanish city of Cartagena de Indias in 1697. They plundered the city, looting valuables worth ten to twenty million livres.
10.4.4.Peace of Ryswick
Were a series of treaties that ended the Nine Years' War.
September 1697: The French evacuated Catalonia.
September 1697: Peace of Ryswick (1697): France kept Strasbourg but returned Freiburg, Breisach, Philippsburg and the Duchy of Lorraine to the Holy Roman Empire.
October 1697: In 1697 France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island by way of the Treaty of Ryswick, which divided Hispaniola between them. France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of Santo Domingo, the Spanish colony on Hispaniola.
Were a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice
11.1.Ottoman-Venetian War (1570-1573)
Was a war of the Ottoman Empire against the Republic of Venice and the Holy League.
January 1574: In 1573, the Holy League fleet failed to sail altogether. Instead, Don John attacked and took Tunis.
Expansion during the rule of Murad III in the Ottoman Empire.
January 1575: In 1574, La Goulette was captured by the Ottoman Empire from the Spanish.
January 1575: In 1574, the city of Sousse, known as Susa, was taken over by the Ottoman Empire from the Spanish. This marked a significant shift in power in the region, with the Ottomans gaining control over the strategic city.
July 1586: In 1585, Ottoman admiral Murat Reis captured the island of Lanzarote in the Canary islands off the West African coast.
Was a conflict between the Spanish Empire and several Muslim states in Southeast Asia, including the Sultanates of Brunei, Sulu, and Maguindanao.
April 1578: In 1578, Spanish conquistador Juan de Salcedo led the invasion of Kota Batu, the capital of Brunei. This military occupation marked Spain's successful expansion into the region, establishing their presence in Southeast Asia.
June 1578: In 1578, Spanish forces led by Governor Guido de Lavezaris suffered heavy losses in Kota Batu, Brunei due to a cholera or dysentery outbreak. Weakened by illness, they decided to abandon the territory and return to Manila on 26 June 1578.
Was a succession crisis caused by the death of the King of Portugal without heirs. The conflict saw two main claimants to the Portuguese throne: António, Prior of Crato, proclaimed in several towns as King of Portugal, and his first cousin Philip II of Spain, who eventually succeeded in claiming the crown, reigning as Philip I of Portugal.
August 1580: Battle of Alcântara: a decisive victory of the Habsburg King Philip II over the other pretender to the Portuguese throne.
October 1580: Philip II of Spain succeeded in claiming the Portuguese crown, reigning as Philip I of Portugal.
August 1583: Acores conquered by spain.
Was a war of succession from 1613 to 1617 over the Duchy of Montferrat in northwestern Italy.
December 1616: The Spanish army led by Pedro Álvarez de Toledo y Colonna conquered Vercelli after 2 months of siege.
September 1617: After a treaty was signed in Paris, Spanish and Savoiard forces left the regions occupied during the War of the Montferrat Sucession.
Was a war that saw Spain fighting against England-Scotland and the Netherlands.
August 1626: Siege of Oldenzaal, wich eventually fell to the Dutch forces.
August 1627: Siege of Groenlo.
September 1629: The Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch in 1629 was led by Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, against the Spanish-held city of 's-Hertogenbosch. The successful siege resulted in the city's surrender and its territory being annexed by the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands.
16.1.Treaty of Madrid
Was the treaty that ended the Anglo-Spanish War (1625-1630).
November 1630: The Treaty of Madrid was signed in 1630 between the Dutch Republic and Spain, ending the Eighty Years' War. The treaty restored the status quo ante bellum, returning the territory to the Spanish Netherlands.
Was a revolution organized by the Portuguese nobility and bourgeoisie sixty years after the crowning of Philip I (Philip II of Spain), the first "dual monarch", that ended the Iberian Union.
December 1640: A revolution organized by the nobility and bourgeoisie on 1 December 1640, sixty years after the crowning of Philip I (Philip II of Spain), the first "dual monarch", ended the Iberian Union between Portugal and Spain.
April 1663: In 1663, John of Austria the Younger, Philip IV's illegitimate son, led 14,000 men into Alentejo, Portugal. They successfully took Évora, a major city in the region, during the military occupation by Spain.
June 1663: In 1663, the Portuguese forces, led by João Rodrigues de Vasconcelos e Sousa, defeated the Spanish troops, commanded by John of Austria, in a significant battle at Ameixial. This victory forced John of Austria to retreat from Évora back across the border with heavy casualties.
June 1665: In June 1665, the Marquis of Caracena, a Spanish military commander, assumed control of Vila Viçosa during the military occupation by Spain.
June 1665: The Portuguese infantry and artillery emplacements broke the Spanish cavalry, and the Spanish force lost over 10,000 men, including casualties and prisoners. Shortly thereafter, the Portuguese retook Vila Viçosa.
Was a global conflict between the Portuguese Empire and the Dutch Empire. The conflict primarily saw the Dutch companies invading Portuguese colonies in the Americas, Africa, and the East Indies.
18.1.Operations in the Pacific and Indian Oceans
Were the military operations of the Dutch in the Pacific and Indian Oceans during the Dutch-Portuguese War.
September 1642: Battle of San Salvador: a military assault launched by the Dutch on a small fortified Spanish settlement and its aboriginal allies in northern Formosa in 1642. After six days, the battle ended in defeat for the Spanish. The Spanish defeat secured full control of the island for the Dutch.
Was a war between the Kingdom of Spains and the Commonwealth of England caused by commercial rivalry.
19.1.Caribbean Theatre of the Anglo-Spanish War (1654-1660)
Was the Caribbean Theatre of the Anglo-Spanish War (1654-1660).
April 1655: Siege of Santo Domingo.
June 1655: Weakened by fever, the English force sailed west for the Colony of Santiago, the only Spanish West Indies island that did not have new defensive works. They landed in May 1655 at a place called Santiago de la Vega, now Spanish Town.
19.2.Low Countries Theatre of the Anglo-Spanish War (1654-60)
Was the Low Countries Theatre of the Anglo-Spanish War (1654-1660).
September 1657: Mardyck was captured and garrisoned by Commonwealth troops.
Was a war between France and Spain. The French armies of Louis XIV occupied the Franche-Comté and large parts of the Spanish Netherlands.
20.1.Front of Flanders (War of Devolution)
Was the theatre of war in the Flanders of the War of Devolution.
July 1667: During the War of Devolution, French military leader Marquis de Rochebaron captured the cities of Tournai, Kortrijk, and Oudenaarde in 1667 as part of France's military occupation of the territory.
September 1667: On 12 September, Turenne captured Aalst.
20.2.France Comté Front (War of Devolution)
Was the theatre of war in the Franche-Comté of the War of Devolution.
February 1668: Besançon and Salins-les-Bains surrendered to French forces.
February 1668: Gray conquered by france.
20.3.Front of Catalonia (War of Devolution)
Was the theatre of war in Catalonia of the War of Devolution.
June 1668: In 1668, the Duke of Osuna, Viceroy of Catalonia, led a Spanish military occupation of Upper Cerdanya with 2,300 infantry and 200 cavalry.
20.4.Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)
Was the treaty that ended the War of Devolution. France returned much of his gains.
May 1669: By the terms of theTreaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), Louis XIV returned three cities (Cambrai, Aire, and Saint-Omer) to Spain.
May 1669: With the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), France returned the province of Franche-Comté to Spain.
May 1669: At the end of the War of Devolution France kept Armentières, Bergues, Charleroi, Courtrai, Douai, Furnes, Lille, Oudenarde, and Tournai.
Was a war between the Kingdom of France and the Dutch Republic.
August 1674: In Northern Europe, the French under the command of King Louis XIV recaptured the Franche-Comté by July 1674. This territory was previously under Spanish control and was strategically important for France's military expansion in the region.
March 1676: The French captured Ypres and Ghent in early March.
21.1.French invasion of the Dutch Republic
Was the French invasion of the Dutch Republic during the Franco-Dutch War.
June 1672: French forces conquer Burick.
December 1673: Münster and Cologne left the war in November. With the war expanding into the Rhineland and Spain, French troops withdrew from the Dutch Republic, retaining only Grave and Maastricht.
21.2.Peace of Nijmegen
Were a series of treaties that ended various interconnected wars, notably the Franco-Dutch War.
January 1678: Valenciennes was formally ceded to France in the Peace of Nijmegen.
August 1678: With the Peace of Nijmegen France gained further territories of the Spanish Netherlands, adding to those it had annexed under the 1659 Peace of the Pyrenees and 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. These included the town of Saint-Omer with the remaining northwestern part of the former Imperial County of Artois, the lands of Cassel, Aire and Ypres in southwestern Flanders, the Bishopric of Cambrai and the towns of Valenciennes and Maubeuge in the southern County of Hainaut.
August 1678: France returned Charleroi, Ghent and other towns to the Spanish Netherlands.
September 1678: By the Treaty of Nijmegen of 1678, Spain relinquished Cambrai, which has remained as a part of France, to this day.
September 1678: Peace of Nijmegen
Was a conflict between France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire caused by Louis XIV's determination to establish defensible boundaries along France's northern and eastern borders.
November 1683: A French army under the Duke of Humières surrounded the town of Courtrai on the night of 3-4 November 1683.
November 1683: The fortress at Courtrai fell to French forces on 6 November 1683.
November 1683: In 1683, during the War of the Reunions, French Marshal François de Créquy led the military occupation of Dixmude. The city surrendered to French forces under the command of Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, without resistance.
April 1684: Siege of Luxembourg by the French army.
June 1684: Siege of Luxembourg by the French army.
The death of childless Charles II of Spain in November 1700 led to a struggle for control of the Spanish Empire between his heirs, Philip of Anjou and Charles of Austria, and their respective supporters. It was a global war, with fighting taking place in Europe, Asia, and America. At the end of the war, Philip II, who was the successor chosen by Charles II as a descendant of Charles' paternal half-sister Maria Theresa, became King of Spain and of its overseas empire. The Spanish possessions in Europe were partitioned between various European Monarchies.
March 1705: As a consequence of the War of the Spanish Succession, the governor of Buenos Aires, Valdes Incian, initiated the Siege of Colonia del Sacramento. The forces of the Spanish governor were commanded by Baltazar García Ros from 18 October 1704 until 14 March 1705, when the colonists were evacuated by Portuguese ships.
23.1.French campaign in Spanish possessions
Were a seris of French military actions to occupy Spanish possession in order to support the Spanish king (who was a grandchild of the French King Louis XIV).
March 1701: In February 1701, the Duchy of Milan, under Spanish control, declared support for Philip, the grandson of Louis XIV, who was declared King of Spain in the will of Charles II. French troops were accepted into the territory as a result.
January 1702: Helped by the Viceroy, Max Emanuel of Bavaria, French troops replaced Dutch garrisons in the 'Barrier' fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands, granted at Ryswick.
23.2.Italian Theatre (War of Spanish Succession)
Was the theatre of war of the War of the Spanish Succession in Italy.
March 1707: The Convention of Milan of March 13, 1707, ensured the uncontested Austrian possession of the Duchies of Milan and of Mantua.
September 1707: Gaeta fell to the imperials after a siege.
January 1708: Imperial troops seized the Spanish Bourbon Kingdom of Naples.
23.3.Spanish Theatre (War of the Spanish Succession)
Was the theatre of war in Spain during the War of the Spanish Succession.
August 1704: British forces captured Gibraltar.
September 1705: The castle of Montjuïc fell into the hands of the allies.
October 1705: Barcelona, surrounded by allied troops, capitulated on 9 October also due to a popular revolt that began in the La Ribera district.
December 1705: Valencia conquered by austria.
June 1706: Portuguese, Dutch and English elements entered Madrid.
June 1706: During the War of the Spanish Succession, the city of Zaragoza was captured by the Allied forces on June 29, 1706. This victory was led by the Duke of Berwick, a prominent military leader in the Spanish army who fought for the Bourbon dynasty.
July 1706: Alicante is taken by the Allies in 1706 in the wake of their landing at Barcelona.
October 1706: The islands of Ibiza and Maiorca conquered by austria.
October 1706: Philip V returned to Madrid at the beginning of October.
January 1707: Ciudad Rodrigo is conquere by the Allied of the War of the Spanish Succession.
June 1707: With the allies in full retreat, the duke of Orléans arrived from Italy and joined the duke of Berwick to retake much of what had been lost in previous military campaigns: the city of Valencia and Zaragoza fell in May.
July 1707: Claude François Bidal d'Asfeld retook Xátiva for Spain in June.
October 1707: The Bourbons recovered the city of Ciudad Rodrigo through the Marquis of Bay.
December 1707: Lleida conquered by Personal Union of Aragon and Castile.
December 1707: Much of Aragon and Valencia returned to obedience to Philip V, and the allies were driven back into Catalonia, beyond the line of the Segre and Ebro rivers.
July 1708: The duke of Orléans took Tortosa in mid-July.
September 1708: In 1708, an English expedition led by Admiral John Norris and General John Campbell landed in Sardinia as part of the War of the Spanish Succession. The island was occupied by Great Britain for strategic purposes, aiming to secure naval dominance in the Mediterranean.
September 1708: British forces captured Minorca.
August 1710: With the battle of Zaragoza the allies regained control of Aragon.
September 1710: Charles III, the Habsburg pretender to the Spanish throne, entered Madrid in 1710, facing resistance from the city's residents who were loyal to the Bourbon dynasty.
December 1710: During the War of the Spanish Succession, French forces led by the Duke of Vendôme captured British General James Stanhope in Brihuega on December 9, 1710. This event was a significant setback for the Grand Alliance forces.
December 1710: Even if the Count of Starhemberg was able to stand up to his enemies, the allies were subsequently forced into a hasty retreat towards Catalonia, reduced only to the regions of Tarragona, Igualada and Barcelona where they remained until the end of the war.
August 1713: In March 1713, Count Sinzendorf, the emperor's delegate to the congress, signed an agreement for the evacuation of the imperial troops from Catalonia: the Empress departed from Barcelona on 19 March, followed the following July by Count Starhemberg.
23.4.Treaty of Rastatt
Was a peace treaty between France and Austria that was concluded on 7 March 1714 in the Baden city of Rastatt to end the War of the Spanish Succession between both countries.
March 1714: At the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, Austria was awarded the Spanish territories in Italy, including Naples, Milan, Sardinia, as well as the Southern Netherlands.
Was an Argentine military campaign directed mainly by General Julio Argentino Roca in the 1870s with the intention of establishing dominance over the Patagonian Desert, inhabited primarily by indigenous peoples.
January 1715: Expansion of Spanish Governorate of the Río de la Plata by 1714.
January 1772: Expansion of Spanish Governorate of the Río de la Plata by 1771.
Was a war initiated by Spain to recover territories lost after the War of the Spanish Succession.
September 1717: In August 1717, the Spanish forces, led by the Viceroy of Sardinia, the Marquis of Lede, landed on the island to regain control from the Austrians. By November of the same year, they successfully re-established Spanish rule over Sardinia through military occupation.
July 1718: The Spanish took Palermo on 7 July.
August 1718: In 1718, the Spanish military occupied the entire territory of Sicily, with the exception of Messina. This action was carried out under the orders of King Philip V of Spain, who sought to assert control over the island and expand Spanish influence in the region.
October 1718: The city of Messina was besieged by Spanish forces until September, when it was taken.
October 1718: The Austrians, led by Count Claude Florimond de Mercy, were defeated by the Spanish forces under the command of Duke Victor Amadeus of Savoy in the First Battle of Milazzo. The Habsburg Empire's military occupation of Milazzo was short-lived as they were unable to maintain control of the territory.
June 1719: The French, led by General Antoine Le Moyne de Bienville, captured the Spanish settlement of Pensacola in Florida in May 1719 during the War of the Quadruple Alliance. This military occupation marked a significant shift in power in the region.
September 1719: Spanish forces retook the town of Pensacola in August 1719.
November 1719: In 1719, Prince Eugene of Savoy, leading the Habsburg Empire forces, achieved victory in the second Battle of Milazzo against the Spanish forces. Following this success, he captured the city of Messina in October, solidifying Habsburg control over the territory.
November 1719: The territory of Pensacola fell to the French again towards the end of 1719 under the leadership of French military officer, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville. This marked a period of French military occupation in the region.
November 1719: A British fleet captured Vigo and marched inland to Pontevedra in October 1719.
25.1.Treaty of The Hague
Was the treaty that ended the War of the Quadruple Alliance. Spain left all the territories occupied during the war.
February 1720: Philip V of Spain was forced to relinquish all territory captured during the War of the Quadruple Alliance.
Was a European conflict caused by the succession to the Habsburg Domains. Maria Theresa succeeded her father Charles VI, and the opposition to female inheritance of the throne was a pretext for starting a war. It was a global conflict that saw fight in Europe, Asia, America and Africa.
26.1.War of Jenkins' Ear
Was a war between the British Empire and the Spanish Empire that took place in the Americas.
November 1739: In 1739, Admiral Edward Vernon led the British attack on Porto Bello, a strategic port in Panama. The successful siege resulted in the town falling to British military occupation within a day. Vernon was a prominent British naval officer known for his aggressive tactics during the War of Jenkins' Ear.
December 1739: In 1739, during the War of Jenkins' Ear, British Admiral Edward Vernon led an unsuccessful siege on Porto Bello in present-day Panama. The British occupied the town for three weeks before withdrawing, having first destroyed its fortifications, port, and warehouses. This event marked a significant defeat for the British in their attempts to gain control of Spanish America.
March 1740: Captain Cevallos was a Spanish military officer who defended the fort of San Lorenzo el Real Chagres against a British military occupation in 1740. Despite his resistance for two days, he eventually surrendered the fort to the British forces.
March 1740: In 1740, during the War of Jenkins' Ear, the British forces, led by Admiral Edward Vernon, attacked and destroyed the fort at San Lorenzo el Real Chagres in Spanish America. They seized the guns and two Spanish patrol boats in the process.
June 1740: In 1740, the British colony of Georgia, led by General James Oglethorpe, launched an overland attack on the fortified city of St. Augustine in Florida, which was then under Spanish control. The attack was part of the larger conflict known as the War of Jenkins' Ear between Britain and Spain.
July 1740: The siege of St. Augustine in 1740 was led by British General James Oglethorpe against Spanish Governor Manuel de Montiano. The failure of the Royal Navy blockade allowed supplies to reach the Spanish settlement, leading to the collapse of the siege.
Were fought by European governments and colonists in North America, and later by the United States and Canadian governments and American and Canadian settlers, against various American Indian and First Nation tribes.
27.1.Yaqui Wars
Were a series of armed conflicts between New Spain, and its successor state, the Mexican Republic, against the Yaqui Natives.
January 1743: In 1740, the Yaqui tribe, along with the Mayo, Opata, and Pima tribes, united to resist Spanish colonization in the Rio Yaqui Valley. By 1742, they successfully drove the colonists out of the territory.
27.2.Cherokee-American wars
Were a series of skirmishes between the Cherokee and the American settlers on the frontier.
October 1794: Georgia officials signed a new treaty with a few compliant Lower Muscogee micos (headmen) in which the latter ceded the land between the Altamaha and St. Mary's Rivers, and from the head of the latter to the Oconee River. They called this wide stretch of land the Tallassee Country,
27.3.Seminole Wars
Were a series of three military conflicts between the United States and the Seminoles that took place in Florida between about 1816 and 1858.
27.3.1.First Seminole War
Was the first of a series of three conflicts between the Seminoles and the United States that took place in Florida.
27.3.1.1.Jackson invades Florida
Was a U.S. military campaign during the First Seminole War.
March 1818: US General Andrew Jackson's army entered Florida, marching down the banks of the Apalachicola River. When they reached the site of the Negro Fort, Jackson had his men construct a new fort, Fort Gadsden.
March 1818: The Indian town of Anhaica (today's Tallahassee) was burned by U.S. troops.
April 1818: The town of Miccosukee was taken by the U.S. Army.
April 1818: U.S. forces take Fort St. Marks (San Marcos).
May 1818: American forces under General Andrew Jackson seize the Spanishheld town of Pensacola, effectively ending the First Seminole War.
Was a global conflict that involved most of the European great powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. At the end of the war the main winner was Great Britain, that obtained territories in North America, the Caribbean and India, becoming the most powerful maritime and colonial of the European powers.
28.1.Fantastic War
Was a war between Spain and Portugal during the Seven Years' War that took place in the Iberian Peninsula and in South America.
28.1.1.Peninsular action (main theatre of the Fantastic War)
Was the theatre of war in the Iberian Peninsula of the Fantastic war between Spain and Portugal.
May 1762: Miranda, the only fortified and provisioned fortress of the province, was besieged on 6 May 1762, but an accidental and huge powder explosion (20 tons) killed four hundred and opened two breaches in the ramparts, forcing the surrender on 9 May 1762.
May 1762: Bragança conquered by spain.
May 1762: Chaves conquered by spain.
May 1762: Torre de Moncorvo conquered by spain.
June 1762: After suffering several setbacks, the Spanish army was forced to withdraw from Portugal, abandoning all their conquests with the only exception of the city of Chaves.
August 1762: The Siege of Almeida in 1762 was part of the Seven Years' War, with a Spanish force capturing the city from Portuguese defenders. The siege was led by Spanish General Alejandro O'Reilly, resulting in the city falling on 25 August.
August 1762: In 1762, during the Seven Years' War, General John Burgoyne led a force of 2,800 Anglo-Portuguese troops to attack and capture Valencia de Alcántara, which was under Spanish control. This military action was part of Portugal's involvement in the war on the side of Britain against Spain.
September 1762: At first the Franco-Spanish army occupied several fortresses with ruined walls and without regular troops: Alfaiates, Castelo Rodrigo, Penamacor, Monsanto, Salvaterra do Extremo, Segura.
September 1762: Castelo Branco is occupied by Spanish forces on 18 September 1762.
October 1762: Vila Velha conquered by spain.
October 1762: Portuguese reconquest of Penamacor and Monsanto.
November 1762: When the Anglo-Portuguese army encircled the Spanish forces in Castelo Branco, the Spanish force fled to Spain, abandoning the town.
28.1.2.South America Theatre of War (Fantastic War)
Was the theatre of war in South America of the Fantastic war between Spain and Portugal.
April 1763: Santa Teresa conquered by spain.
January 1764: In 1763, during the Spanish-Portuguese War, the Portuguese settlements of São José do Norte and S. Pedro do Sul were abandoned without resistance to Spanish forces led by Pedro Antonio de Cevallos. This event marked the transfer of the territory to Spanish America.
28.2.Anglo-Spanish War (1762-63)
Was a military conflict fought between Britain and Spain as part of the Seven Years' War.
August 1762: British forces captured Havana.
October 1762: The British forces, led by Admiral Samuel Cornish and Brigadier General William Draper, successfully captured Manila from the Spanish in 1762 during the Seven Years' War. The Battle of Manila resulted in significant plunder being taken from the city.
28.3.Treaty of Paris (1763)
Was a treaty signed on 10 February 1763 by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement, after Great Britain and Prussia's victory over France and Spain during the Seven Years' War.
February 1763: Colonia do Sacramento was given back to Portugal.
February 1763: East Florida was founded as a colony by the British colonial government in 1763, with its capital at St. Augustine, which had been the capital of Spanish La Florida.
February 1763: Treaty of Paris (1763): the forts of Santa Teresa and San Miguel, Santa Tecla, San Miguel, Santa Teresa and Rio Grande de São Pedro remained in Spanish hands.
February 1763: Treaty of Paris (1763): Britain restored Manila and Havana to Spain.
February 1763: Spain was forced to return to Portugal the small cities of Almeida and Chaves on the Hispano-Portuguese frontier.
February 1763: With the Treaty of Paris (1763) the Anglo-Portuguese army left the territories it had occupied in Spain.
February 1763: Great Britain established West and East Florida in 1763 out of land acquired from France and Spain after the French and Indian War.
28.4.Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762)
Was a secret agreement of 1762 in which the Kingdom of France ceded Louisiana to Spain, which did not take possession of it until 1769.
January 1770: The Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed by King Louis XV of France and King Charles III of Spain. The transfer of Louisiana to Spain was part of a secret agreement to compensate Spain for its loss of Florida to Britain. Spain officially took possession of Western Louisiana in 1769.
Was a war between Spain and Portugal fought over the border of their overseas territories in South America.
March 1776: In 1776, Portuguese land forces led by the Marquis of Pombal pushed forward in the Rio Grande area, forcing the Spanish commander Juan José de Vértiz y Salcedo to withdraw. This resulted in the territory being ceded to Portuguese Brazil.
February 1777: Cevallos decided to attack the island of Santa Catarina on 23 February. When the Portuguese saw the formidable Spanish fleet disembark their troops, the garrison fled to the mainland without firing a shot.
June 1777: The city of Colonia de Sacramento capitulated on 3 June 1777 to Spanish forces led by General Pedro de Cevallos during the Spanish-Portuguese War. This marked the beginning of a period of Spanish military occupation in the region.
29.1.First Treaty of San Ildefonso
Was a treaty between Spain and Portugal that settled long-running territorial disputes between the two kingdoms' possessions in South America, primarily in the Río de la Plata region.
October 1777: In 1777, Portugal ceded Colonia del Sacramento to Spain as part of the Treaty of San Ildefonso.
October 1777: On 24 February 1777 King Joseph I died and his daughter and successor Maria I dismissed Pombal and concluded on 1 October the First Treaty of San Ildefonso with Spain. Spain returned the island of Santa Catarina to Portugal.
October 1777: Misiones Orientales conquered by spain.
Was a war between the Kingdom of Spain and the Kingdom of Portugal over the border between Spanish and Portuguese South America.
February 1777: The territory of São José do Norte and S. Pedro do Sul was retaken by the Portuguese from the Spanish during the "deaf war" (1763-1777). This conflict was part of the larger struggle between Portugal and Spain over control of territories in South America.
The Treaty of El Pardo signed on 11 March 1778 sought to end conflict between Spain and Portugal in the Río de la Plata region, along the modern boundary between Argentina and Uruguay.
March 1778: In 1778, the Spanish Crown acquired the Portuguese islands of Annobón and Bioko (Fernão Pó), as well as the mainland territory between the Niger River and the Ogoue River. This transfer was part of the Treaty of El Pardo, negotiated by King Charles III of Spain and Queen Maria I of Portugal.
Was the war of independence of the United States of America (at the time the Thirteen Colonies) against Great Britain.
32.1.Anglo-French War (1778-1783)
Was a war between France, allied to the United States, and Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War.
March 1783: The French captured the Turks and Caicos islands 1783.
32.2.Anglo-Spanish War (1779-1783)
Was a war between Spain and Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War.
32.2.1.North American Theatre (Anglo-Spanish War of 1779-1783)
North American theatre of the Anglo-Spanish War (1779-1783).
September 1779: Battle of Baton Rouge. Spanish forces under Don Bernardo de Gálvez capture the remote British post at Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
October 1779: In September 1779 the Spanish captured Fort Bute.
April 1780: In 1780, during the American Revolutionary War, the British surrendered Fort Rosalie at Natchez to Spanish forces.
April 1780: Spanish conquest of Mobile, the Capital of British West Florida.
May 1780: Battle of Saint Louis. The 310-man Spanish garrison at St.Louis repulse an attack by 300 British soldiers and 900 Indians under Captain Emanuel Hesse.
January 1781: A Spanish expedition into present-day Illinois led to the occupation of Fort St. Joseph.
May 1781: The Spanish siege of Pensacola (1781) results in the occupation of the city.
32.2.2.Central America (Anglo-Spanish War of 1779-1783)
Central American theatre of the Anglo-Spanish War (1779-1783).
May 1780: The siege of the Fortress of the Immaculate Conception in April ended in success for the British, who, however, as well as short of supplies, were decimated by the diseases brought by the abundant tropical rains that fell on the region.
December 1780: The British forces, led by General John Campbell, attempted to capture Fortezza dell'Immacolata Concezione in 1780 during the Spanish American War. However, they were unsuccessful and ultimately withdrew in November without achieving their objective.
April 1782: The Black River settlement was located in present-day Belize. The Spanish forces were led by Governor Arturo O'Neill, while the British garrison was under the command of Captain Thomas Paslow. The settlers were primarily British logwood cutters and their families.
June 1782: The Spanish force was led by Bernardo de Gálvez, a Spanish military leader who played a key role in the American Revolutionary War. The capture of Nassau was part of Spain's efforts to support the American colonies in their fight against British rule.
August 1782: In 1782, the British, led by Governor Alexander Lindsay, responded to the Spanish occupation of the Black River settlement by regrouping the settlers and sending reinforcements from Jamaica. The British forces, along with the settlers, successfully recaptured the territory from the disease-depleted Spanish force.
May 1783: In April 1783, the island of Nassau was recaptured by the British forces.
32.2.3.Invasion of Minorca
Was the reconquest of Menorca by Franco-Spanish forces during the American Revolutionary War.
August 1781: When the Spanish troops entered the town of Mahón, most of the remaining population was on their side, and greeted them with cheers.
August 1781: In 1781, during the American Revolutionary War, Georgetown (today Es Castell, on the Island of Menorca) was captured by Spanish forces led by Governor Bernardo de Gálvez. Only 152 prisoners were taken as the Spanish military occupation of the territory began.
August 1781: Spanish Admiral Luis de Córdova led the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Cape Spartel in 1781. The fleet successfully landed at Mesquida bay, marking the beginning of Spain's military occupation of the territory.
August 1781: In 1781, during the American Revolutionary War, Spanish troops led by Bernardo de Gálvez captured the British-held territories of Ciudadela and Fornells in Menorca. The small British garrison of about 50 men offered little resistance.
February 1782: The Siege of Fort St. Philip in 1782 was a key battle during the Anglo-Spanish War. The British forces, led by General Murray, defended the fort against the Spanish, led by the Duke of Crillon. After a long and bloody siege, the fort fell to the Spanish, leading to the military occupation of Menorca by Spain.
32.2.4.Treaty of Paris (1783)
Was the treaty that officially ended the American Revolutionary War between the United States and Great Britain as well as various other related wars. The treaty set the boundaries between British North America and the United States.
Were a series of conflicts between France and several European monarchies between 1792 and 1815. They encompass first the French Revolutionary Wars against the newly declared French Republic and from 1803 onwards the Napoleonic Wars against First Consul and later Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. They include the Coalition Wars as a subset: seven wars waged by various military alliances of great European powers, known as Coalitions, against Revolutionary France - later the First French Empire - and its allies.
33.1.Haitian Revolution
Was the succesful insurrection by self-liberated slaves of the colony of Saint-Domingue (modern-day Haiti) against French rule leading to the creation of the independent country of Haiti, the first independent nation of Latin America and the Caribbean.
October 1793: In 1793, Captain-General Joaquin Garcia y Moreno led a Spanish force into the Northern Province, which was under military occupation by Spain. This marked a significant event in the history of the region, as it changed the political landscape and control of the territory.
May 1794: Toussaint Louverture betrayed his Spanish allies and ambushed them as they left a church in San Raphael.
33.2.War of the First Coalition
Were a series of wars between the Kingdom of France (later the French Republic) and several European Monarchies. The French Revolution had deteriorated the relations of France with the other European countries, that tried several times to invade France in order to crash the revolutionary government.
January 1794: In 1794, during the War of the First Coalition, the French armies, led by generals such as Jean-Charles Pichegru and Jacques François Dugommier, were defending the border regions in the Pyrenees against the Spanish and British forces. The territory ultimately went to the First French Republic.
33.2.1.Flanders Campaign
Was a French military campaign in the Flanders.
January 1794: Spanish armies crossed the Pyrenees.
33.2.2.War of the Pyrenees
Was the Pyrenean front of the First Coalition's war against the First French Republic.
April 1793: In 1793, Spanish General Antonio Ricardos invaded the Cerdagne region and captured the town of Saint-Laurent-de-Cerdans during the War of the Pyrenees between France and Spain. This military occupation marked a significant event in the conflict between the two countries.
June 1793: The Siege of Bellegarde was part of the War of the First Coalition, with the French garrison surrendering to the Spanish forces led by Captain General Antonio Ricardos. This marked a significant victory for Spain in the conflict.
August 1793: In 1793, Luc Siméon Auguste Dagobert, a French military leader, defeated a Spanish force led by Manuel la Peña at Puigcerdà in the Cerdagne region. This victory led to the territory of Puigcerdà and Bellver being occupied by France.
September 1793: Eustache Charles d'Aoust rallied the French to win the Battle of Peyrestortes on 17 September. This represented the farthest Spanish advance in Rousillon.
December 1793: In 1793, during the French Revolutionary Wars, Spanish General Gregorio García de la Cuesta led the successful military occupation of Collioure and Port-Vendres, seizing control of the ports from the French.
February 1794: In 1794, during the War of the Pyrenees, Jacques Lefranc, a French general, led 2,000 Republican troops to capture the strategic Izpegi Ridge in the Basque Country, which was under Spanish control at the time. This victory marked a significant military occupation by France in the region.
August 1794: Moncey, a French general during the French Revolutionary Wars, captured San Sebastián in 1794 without facing any opposition. This marked the beginning of French military occupation in the region.
September 1794: The fortress of Bellegarde fell on 17 September 1794 after the Spanish garrison, led by Captain General Alejandro O'Reilly, was starved out by the French forces under General Dugommier during the War of the Pyrenees. This marked a significant victory for France in their military occupation of the region.
October 1794: From 15 to 17 October, French marsha Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey, launched a broad front offensive from the Baztan valley and the Roncevaux Pass to the south in the direction of Pamplona. The Battle of Orbaitzeta saw clashes at Mezkiritz (Mezquiriz), Orbaitzeta, Lekunberri, and Villanueva (Hiriberri).
November 1794: Figueres and its Sant Ferran Fortress fell to the French with 9,000 prisoners.
February 1795: Pierre François Sauret was a French general who led the successful Siege of Roses in 1795. The Siege of Roses was a military operation during the War of the Pyrenees, where French forces occupied the town of Roses in Catalonia, Spain.
July 1795: Vitoria, a city in northern Spain, fell to the French forces led by General Jean-Charles de Bailleul on 17 July 1795 during the War of the Pyrenees.
July 1795: Bilbao conquered by france.
July 1795: The Peace of Basel ends the War of the Pyrenees on July 22, 1795 In the treaty, it was established that France returned the occupied territories to Spain. Spain, in compensation for the recovery of the territories of the Pyrenees, ceded to revolutionary France the eastern part of Santo Domingo. The French already controlled the western part of the island, Santo Domingo, since the signing of the Treaty of Rijswijk in 1697.
July 1795: Spanish general Cuesta recaptured Puigcerdà and Bellver from the French on 26 and 27 July.
33.3.French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars - Theatre of war in the overseas colonies
The theatre of war in the overseas colonies during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.
April 1797: Sir Ralph Abercromby was a British Army officer who led the invasion of Puerto Rico in 1797. The military occupation by Great Britain lasted only a few months before the island was returned to Spanish control as part of the Treaty of Amiens in 1802.
January 1803: In 1802, Puerto Rico was reconquered by the Spanish, led by Governor Toribio Montes. This marked the return of the territory to Spanish America after a brief period of British occupation.
33.4.War of the Second Coalition
Was the second war that saw revolutionary France against most of the European monarchies, led by Britain, Austria, and Russia, and including the Ottoman Empire, Portugal, Naples, and various German monarchies. Prussia did not join this coalition, and Spain supported France.
33.4.1.War of the Oranges
Was a brief conflict in 1801 in which Spanish forces, instigated by the government of France, and ultimately supported by the French military, invaded Portugal.
May 1801: The Spanish attack to Portugal started on the early morning of the 20 May, and focused on the Portuguese border region that included the main Garrison Town and Fortifications of Elvas and the smaller fortified towns of Campo Maior, Olivença and Juromenha.
June 1801: Campo Maior was a Portuguese town near the Spanish border. Lieutenant-Colonel Dias Azevedo was a military leader in the Portuguese garrison who successfully defended the town against a Spanish assault for 17 days in 1801 during the War of the Oranges.
June 1801: The Treaty of Badajoz was signed by Spain and Portugal on 6 June 1801. Portugal ceded the border town of Olivença and Almeda to Spain and closed its ports to British military and commercial shipping. The Spanish abandoned the remaining occupied territory.
June 1801: The Treaty of Badajoz was signed by Spain and Portugal on 6 June 1801. Portugal ceded the border town of Olivença and Almeda to Spain and closed its ports to British military and commercial shipping.
33.4.2.Treaty of Amiens
Was a treaty between France and Great Britain that ended the War of the Second Coalition.
March 1802: In 1802, Britain and France signed the Treaty of Amiens, ending the war of the War of the Second Coalition. Britain returned the Island of Menorca to Spain.
33.5.Anglo-Spanish War (1796-1808)
Was a war between Spain and Great Britain fought intermittently during the Coalition Wars.
November 1798: In 1798, during the French Revolutionary Wars, a British expedition led by Admiral John Duckworth captured the island of Menorca from Spain. The British occupation of Minorca lasted until 1802 when it was returned to Spain under the Treaty of Amiens.
November 1798: A British expedition captured the island of Menorca (historically called "Minorca" by the British) from Spain.
33.5.1.Invasion of Trinidad (1797)
Was the British invasion of Trinidad during the Anglo-Spanish War (1796-1808).
February 1797: In 1797, a fleet of 18 warships led by Sir Ralph Abercromby invaded and captured the Island of Trinidad. This marked the beginning of British colonial rule in Trinidad, which was previously under Spanish control. Abercromby was a British Army officer known for his successful military campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars.
33.5.2.British invasions of the River Plate
Was the British invasion of modern-day Argentina during the Anglo-Spanish War (1796-1808).
June 1806: The British took Quilmes, near Buenos Aires.
June 1806: In 1806, British forces led by Sir Home Popham occupied Buenos Aires during the British invasions of the River Plate.
August 1806: Beresford surrendered to Spanish forces on 14 August.
February 1807: British forces captured the city of Montevideo.
October 1807: The occupation of Montevideo by the British army lasted until September 1807, when troops were withdrawn in compliance with the agreement signed following the surrender of British forces in Buenos Aires in July 1807.
33.6.Treaty of San Ildefonso (1800)
Was a secret agreement signed on 1 October 1800 between the Spanish Empire and the French Republic by which Spain agreed to exchange its North American colony of Louisiana for territories in Tuscany.
October 1800: In the secretly negotiated Third Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800, Spain returned the colonial territory of Louisiana to France. This was done under the rule of King Charles IV of Spain and First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte of France.
33.7.Peninsular War
Was the military conflict fought in the Iberian Peninsula by Spain, Portugal, and the United Kingdom against the invading and occupying forces of the First French Empire during the Napoleonic Wars.
March 1814: French retreat t Tarbes. End of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Spain.
33.7.1.French Campaigns in Spain and Portugal (1807-1812)
Were a series of military campaigns by the French army in Spain and Portugal during the Peninsular War.
February 1808: Between 9 and 12 February, the French divisions of the eastern and western Pyrenees crossed the border and occupied Navarre and Catalonia, including the citadels of Pamplona and Barcelona.
March 1808: In early March 1808, Marshal Joachim Murat, a French military leader and brother-in-law of Napoleon Bonaparte, established his headquarters in Vitoria, Spain. This marked the beginning of the French military occupation of the territory during the Napoleonic Wars.
March 1808: On 23 March 1808, French Marshal Joachim Murat entered Madrid.
May 1808: In 1808, under French pressure, King Charles IV and his son, Ferdinand VII, both abdicated their claims to Napoleon. This led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Spain under Napoleonic rule.
December 1808: Madrid surrendered on 1 December 1808 to French forces.
December 1808: Napoleon struck with overwhelming strength and the Spanish defense evaporated at Burgos, Tudela, Espinosa and Somosierra.
December 1808: Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr's 17,000-strong VII Corps besieged and captured Roses from an Anglo-Spanish garrison.
December 1808: In 1808, during the Peninsular War, French Marshal Soult captured the city of León in Spain as part of Napoleon's invasion. This event was significant in the struggle for control of the Iberian Peninsula between the French forces and the Spanish resistance.
January 1809: The British troops escaped to the sea after fending off a strong French attack at Corunna. The French occupied the most populated region in Spain, including the important towns of Lugo and La Corunna.
February 1809: French forces captured the city of Zaragoza.
March 1809: A French army led by Victor invaded southern Spain and routed Gregorio de la Cuesta's army at Medellín.
August 1809: The French withdrew for the last time from Galicia in July 1809.
August 1809: Allied forces withdrew from Talavera, Spain, on 4 August.
December 1809: The city of Girona fell on 12 December 1809 during the Peninsular War, when French forces captured the city from the Spanish defenders.
January 1810: Ellermann marched on Del Parque's position at Salamanca, who promptly abandoned it and retreated south.
January 1810: The Junta Central decided to flee to the safety of Cádiz.
January 1811: General Suchet, a French military leader under Napoleon Bonaparte, captured the town of Tortosa from the Spanish in Catalonia during the Napoleonic Wars in 1811. This victory was part of the French conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.
June 1811: Catalonia fell to a surprise attack on 29 June.
October 1811: The Spanish defenders of Sagunto capitulated on 25 October.
January 1812: During the Peninsular War, French Marshal Louis Gabriel Suchet trapped Spanish General Joaquin Blake's army in Valencia, forcing its surrender in January 1812. This victory was part of Napoleon's efforts to control Spain during the Napoleonic Wars.
33.7.2.Iberia in revolt
Were a series of uprisings against the French rule in the Iberian Peninsula.
May 1808: In 1808, the first wave of uprisings against French occupation of Spain occurred in Cartagena and Valencia.
May 1808: Zaragoza and Murcia conquered by Kingdom of Spain.
May 1808: The province of Asturias cast out its French governor on 25 May and declared war on Napoleon.
June 1808: By 1 June the main French army of 80,000 held a narrow strip of central Spain from Pamplona and San Sebastián in the north to Madrid and Toledo in the centre.
July 1808: At the Battle of Medina de Rioseco on 14 July, Bessières defeated Cuesta and Old Castile returned to French control.
August 1808: Joseph Bonaparte evacuated the capital for Old Castile, while ordering Verdier to abandon the siege of Zaragoza and Bessières to retire from Leon.
33.7.3.Coalition campaigns in the Iberian Peninsula
Ware a series of military campaigns by Great Britain, Spain and Portugal against the French forces in the Iberian Peninsula. The French were finally expelled.
January 1812: The border fortress town of Ciudad Rodrigo was captured with an assault led by the Duke of Wellington and his British and Portuguese forces during the Peninsular War in 1812. The territory was then returned to the Kingdom of Spain.
April 1812: The town of Badajoz was stormed on 6 April 1812 during the Peninsular War. The assault was led by British General Arthur Wellesley, also known as the Duke of Wellington, and resulted in a bloody battle with heavy casualties on both sides. The town ultimately fell to the British and Portuguese forces, marking a significant victory in the war against the French.
June 1812: The allied army took Salamanca.
June 1813: In 1813, during the Peninsular War, Burgos was seized by the French forces.
June 1813: At the Battle of Vitoria, Joseph Bonaparte's 65,000-man army were defeated decisively.
July 1813: In 1813, during the Napoleonic Wars, Marshal Soult of the Kingdom of Spain launched a counter-offensive against the Allies in the Battle of the Pyrenees. The Allies were defeated at the Battle of Maya, marking a significant victory for the Kingdom of Spain.
July 1813: Battle of Roncesvalles.
August 1813: The Allies chased the retreating French, reaching the Pyrenees in early July, and began operations against San Sebastian and Pamplona.
August 1813: The French forces of Suchet, after the Battle of Vitoria, evacuated Tarragona.
September 1813: The Citadel of San Sebastián surrendered to Spanish forces on 9 September.
April 1814: French General Pierre-Joseph Habert surrendered Barcelona to Spanish forces on 25 April 1814.
33.7.4.French Autumn counterattack
Was a French counterattack against the military campaign by the Coalition in the Iberian Peninsula.
July 1812: As a consequence of the Salamanca campaign, the French were forced to evacuate the provinces of Andalusia and Asturias.
33.8.Spanish Restoration in Santo Domingo
Was an Anglo-Spanish military expedition that restored Santo Domingo to Spain.
November 1808: Battle of Palo Hincado.
July 1809: The Siege of Santo Domingo of 1808 was a military conflict between French forces led by General Marie-Louis Ferrand and Spanish forces led by Juan Sánchez Ramírez. The siege resulted in the surrender of Santo Domingo to the French, who then controlled the territory until 1809 when it was transferred to Spanish America.
33.9.War of the Sixth Coalition
Was a war between France and a a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Spain, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, and a number of German States. The coalition emerged after the decimation of the French army in the French invasion of Russia. The coalition ultimately invaded France and forced Napoleon to abdicate and go into exile.
March 1814: After the Congress of Vienna in 1814, the former republic of Lucca became a duchy under the rule of Maria Luisa of Spain. Piombino was annexed to the grand duchy of Tuscany under the control of Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany.
33.10.Congress of Vienna
Was a series of international diplomatic meetings after the end of the Napoleonic wars whose aim was a long-term peace plan for Europe. It redraw the borders of Europe and partially restored the Monarchies of the pre-revolutionary period.
June 1815: After the downfall of France in 1814 and the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany was restored.
Were two border disputes that involved Spain and the United States in relation to the region known as West Florida.
34.1.First West Florida Controversy
The dispute over West Florida between Spain and the United States was finally resolved with Pinckney's Treaty in 1795, in which both parties agreed on the 31st parallel as the boundary between the United States and West Florida.
October 1795: With Pinckney's Treaty in 1795, Spain and the United States agreed on the 31st parallel as the boundary between the United States and West Florida.
34.2.Second West Florida Controversy
The United States occupied West Florida, a disputed territory, taking advantage of the Peninsular War that Spain was fighting against Napoleonic forces.
February 1821: The Adams-Onís Treaty was negotiated between Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and Spanish minister Luis de Onís. The treaty resulted in the transfer of East and West Florida to the United States in 1821 in exchange for the US dropping claims of spoliation against Spain.
Was a treaty between Spain and Portugal where the latter regained the Misiones Orientales region.
June 1801: In 1801, Portugal regained control of the Misiones Orientales in the Treaty of Badajoz, signed between Portugal and Spain. The treaty was negotiated by Spanish Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy and Portuguese diplomat Domingos de Sousa Coutinho.
Were a series of independence wars by the Spanish colonies in America that started after the French occupation of mainland Spain during the Napoleonic Wars.
36.1.Bolivian War of Independence
Was the War for indipendence from Spain by Bolivia.
May 1809: In 1809, in Sucre, the oidores (delegates of the Spanish Crown) deposed President García León and established a junta to govern in the name of Ferdinand VII, who was the King of Spain at the time. This marked a significant shift in power dynamics in the region during the period of Spanish colonial rule.
July 1809: In 1809, Pedro Domingo Murillo, a Criollo leader, led a revolt in La Paz alongside Mestizos. They established an independent junta of Upper Peru to govern in the name of Ferdinand VII, the captive king of Spain.
December 1809: By November 1809, Cochabamba, Oruro, and Potosí had joined the La Paz junta.
January 1810: The revolts in Upper Peru and Sucre were put down by Spanish forces sent to La Paz by the viceroys of Peru and the Río de La Plata.
August 1825: Situation of the borders of Republic of Chile at the end of Southamerican indipendency wars.
August 1825: Situation of the borders of Republic of Bolivia at the end of Southamerican indipendency wars.
August 1825: In 1825, the territory of Upper Peru declared its independence from Spain and became the Republic of Bolivia under the leadership of Simón Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre.
36.2.Venezuelan War of Independence
Was the independence war of the Captaincy General of Venezuela against Spanish rule.
36.2.1.Establishment of the First republic of Venezuela
Was the establishment of the First Republic of Venezuela, which was reconquered by Spain in 1812.
April 1810: The municipal council of Caracas headed a successful movement to depose the Spanish Governor and Captain General, Vicente Emparán. A junta was established in Caracas.
January 1811: Several Venezuelan provinces declared independence from Spanish rule and formed Semi-Independent Juntas.
July 1812: After the Battle of San Mateo in 1812, the First Republic of Venezuela collapsed. General Francisco de Miranda, a Venezuelan revolutionary leader, capitulated to Spanish General Domingo de Monteverde and signed an armistice, leading to the territory reverting back to Spanish America.
36.2.2.Establishment of the Second Republic of Venezuela
Was the establishment of the Second Eepublic of Venezuela, which was reconquered by Spain in 1814.
36.2.2.1.Eastern Campaign
Was a military campaign by revolutionaries in eastern Venezuela during the Venezuelan War of Indipendence.
January 1813: In 1813, during the Venezuelan War of Independence, General Santiago Mariño led a successful commando-style attack on Güiria, a town in present-day Venezuela. Mariño was a prominent leader in the Venezuelan revolutionary forces fighting against Spanish colonial rule.
August 1813: The Venezuelan revolutionary leader Santiago Mariño entered Cumaná on August 3.
August 1813: Barcelona conquered by Second Republic of Venezuela.
36.2.2.2.Admirable Campaign
Was a military campaign by revolutionaries led by Simón Bolívar where the provinces of Mérida, Barinas, Trujillo and Caracas were conquered during the Venezuelan War of Indipendence.
June 1813: Simón Bolívar and his Venezuelan revolutionaries arrived in the city of Trujillo in 1813 during the Venezuelan War of Independence.
July 1813: Battle of Niquitao.
July 1813: Battle of Taguanes.
August 1813: The fall of Valencia on August 2, 1813, was a significant event during the Venezuelan War of Independence. It marked the victory of Venezuelan revolutionaries led by Simón Bolívar and Santiago Mariño over Spanish royalist forces, further weakening Spanish control in the region.
August 1813: Simón Bolívar, a Venezuelan revolutionary leader, marched along the San Cristóbal - La Grita - Mérida - Trujillo road in 1813. His triumphal entry into Caracas on August 6 led to the surrender of the royalist government on August 4.
August 1813: La Victoria conquered by Venezuelan Revolutionaries.
August 1813: Losing on two fronts, the royalist government surrendered on August 4. Bolívar's forces had a triumphal entrance into the city of Caracas on August 6, bringing an end to the campaign and reestablishing the Venezuelan republic.
36.2.2.3.Boves campaign
Was a Spanish military campaign against revolutionaries during the Venezuelan War of Independence.
May 1814: Battle of Carabobo.
December 1814: Battle of Urica.
36.2.3.Proclamation of Gran Colombia
In 1819 Bolívar proclaimed the Republic Gran Colombia, which he planned to include Venezuela and New Granada.
January 1818: Venezuelan leaders Piar and Mariño occupied defenceless Angostura (a city at the narrowest and deepest part of the Orinoco River).
December 1819: In 1819, Simón Bolívar proclaimed the Republic of Gran Colombia, which aimed to unite Venezuela and New Granada (present-day Colombia). Bolívar was a Venezuelan military and political leader who played a key role in Latin America's struggle for independence from Spanish rule.
36.2.3.1.Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada
Was a military campaign led by Simon Bolívar, part of the Colombian and Venezuelan wars of independence.
July 1819: The Spanish doubted Bolívar's army could make the trip through the Colombian corner of the cordillera oriental, and therefore, they were taken by surprise when Bolívar's small army emerged from the mountains on 5 July.
July 1819: Vargas Swamp Battle.
August 1819: Simón Bolívar, a Venezuelan military and political leader, redirected his forces towards Tunja during the Venezuelan and Colombian Wars of Independence. He successfully took the city by mid-day in 1819, further advancing the revolutionaries' cause.
August 1819: Battle of Boyacá: the bulk of the royalist army surrendered to Bolívar.
August 1819: Bolívar's army entered Bogotá without any royalist resistance.
June 1821: Battle of Carabobo.
January 1822: Cumaná conquered by Republic of Gran Colombia.
November 1823: Puerto Cabello managed to resist a siege before finally capitulating to Colombian forces. The city was the last Spanish stronghold in the region.
36.3.Argentine War of Indipendence
Was the independence war of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (later Argentina) against Spanish rule.
May 1810: The May Revolution led on May 25, 1810 to the formation of the First Government Junta, presided over by a Creole, Cornelio Saavedra, who claimed to impose his authority over the entire Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata as the legitimate successor of the viceroy.
June 1810: The city of Mendoza rebelled gainst Spain and joined the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata.
July 1810: The cities of Upper Peru did not have occasion to pronounce themselves before their own governments did so in a negative sense. The only case in the city region that joined the Revolution was that of Tarija, which also elected its own deputy.
July 1810: The city of San Luis, located in present-day Argentina, recognized the Junta, a revolutionary government established in Buenos Aires, as soon as news of its constitution arrived in 1810. This marked the city's support for the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata's independence movement.
July 1810: The circular of May 27 was addressed to all the cities and municipalities of the viceroyalty. The cities of the interior located on the territory of the future Argentina recognized the new junta, including the cities of Mendoza and Salta.
July 1810: In 1810, San Juan recognized the junta (government) of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata.
August 1810: In 1810, the cities of San José de Jáchal and San Agustín de Valle Fértil in Argentina decided to join the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata.
August 1810: Royalist troops deserted en masse, forcing their leaders to continue their flight with a meager escort, until they were captured one by one between 6 and 7 August and taken back to Córdoba. On August 10, the bulk of the army arrived in the city and the cabildo recognized the junta and the new governor de Pueyrredón.
September 1810: In August 1810, the chaplain José Andrés de Salvatierra led a revolt in the Fort of Membiray against Spanish colonial rule. On September 24, he successfully took control of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, a significant event in the struggle for independence in the region.
September 1810: The cabildo of La Rioja, led by Governor Brizuela, hesitated to support the Junta until 1 September 1810. This delay was due to conflicting loyalties and uncertainty about the political situation in the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata.
October 1810: The royalists abandoned Tupiza and fell back to Cotagaita.
November 1810: The vanguard of the Army of the North, led by General Manuel Belgrano, began its march towards Upper Peru through the Quebrada de Humahuaca in October 1810. This marked the beginning of the campaign to liberate the region from Spanish colonial rule.
November 1810: Battle of Suipacha.
November 1810: The outcome of the Battle of Suipacha, where the revolutionary forces led by Juan José Castelli defeated the royalist army, boosted the morale of the revolutionaries in Potosí. This led to the deposition of the governor Francisco de Paula Sanz on November 10, 1810.
November 1810: General José Manuel de Goyeneche, leading the Spanish royalist forces, was defeated by General Pedro Antonio Olañeta in the Battle of Aroma. Goyeneche's forces, including Piérola and Ramírez Orozco, retreated to the Desaguadero River in 1810 during the Bolivian War of Independence.
November 1810: A division of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, led by General José Rondeau, entered La Paz on November 19, 1810.
July 1816: The United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata emerged from the May Revolution in 1810 and the Argentine War of Independence of 1810-1818.
36.3.1.Banda Oriental Campaign
Was an argentine military campaign in the Banda Oriental region (the South American territories east of the Uruguay River) during the Argentine War of Indipendence.
October 1810: On October 9, General Gaspar de Vigodet gave the naval officer Juan Ángel Michelena the task of occupying the banks of the Uruguay River, forcing the authorities of the villages located on them, including the city of Concepción del Uruguay (occupied on November 6) ,.
December 1810: Gualeguaychú and Gualeguay conquered by spain.
February 1811: On February 28, near the Asencio stream, the commander Ramón Fernández launched his opposition, the so-called Grito de Asencio (in Italian Grido di Asencio), signaling an armed uprising against Elío's authority. Local farmers and gauchos joined him, forming irregular troops, which began a series of clashes against troops loyal to Spain.
April 1811: After a series of skirmishes, the royalists evacuated their positions on the western bank of Uruguay, leaving the region in revolutionary hands by March 1811.
May 1811: Battle of Las Piedras.
May 1811: The royalists, led by Spanish Governor Francisco Javier de Elío, were besieged by the patriots, led by José Gervasio Artigas and Carlos María de Alvear. The patriots eventually captured Colonia del Sacramento on May 26, 1811, marking a significant victory in the struggle for independence in the region.
May 1811: The area held by the royalists, led by Spanish General José Posadas, was limited to the cities of Montevideo and Colonia del Sacramento. The patriots, led by José Gervasio Artigas, put the two strongholds under siege on 21 and 26 May 1811 respectively.
June 1811: At the beginning of June, the royalists evacuated Colonia del Sacramento, which was occupied by the revolutionaries.
October 1811: After a failed attempt to capture Montevideo from Spanish forces, General José Rondeau led the retreat of his army towards Entre Ríos in 1811 during the Spanish American wars of independence. The siege of Montevideo was officially lifted on October 12.
December 1811: On July 20, 1811 an armistice was signed between the First Argentine Triumvirate and the Spanish viceroy Elío. Withdrawal of the revolutionary and Portuguese troops from the Banda Oriental and from the cities of Concepción del Uruguay, Gualeguay and Gualeguaychú, in the territory of Entre Ríos.
January 1812: Declaring the armistice broken, Vigodet reopened hostilities on January 31, 1812. Artigas moved towards Misiones Fernando Otorgués and Fructuoso Rivera, who reconquered the towns of Santo Tomé, Yapeyú and La Cruz.
36.3.1.1.Portuguese Invasion of Banda Oriental
Was a Portuguese invasion of the Banda Oriental region during the Argentine War of Independence.
July 1811: Portuguese forces crossed the border with Spanish America and reached Melo the same day.
August 1811: In 1811, Portuguese Sergeant major Manuel dos Santos Pedroso led a force to occupy Belén in the Banda Oriental, which is now Uruguay. This military occupation was part of Portugal's efforts to expand its territory in South America.
September 1811: On 1 September Paysandú was occupied by Portuguese forces.
October 1811: The Portuguese captured several Orientais and hundreds of horses in the town of Rocha, in Castillos Lagoon and in Castillo Grande.
November 1811: From Mandisoví the Portuguese forces occupied Curuzú Cuatiá.
36.3.2.Paraguayan campaign of Belgrano
Was a military campaign in Paraguay by Argentine leader Manuel Belgrano during the Argentine War of Independence.
November 1810: At the end October, having organized its forces into 4 divisions, and counting the Paraguayan José Machain as sergeant major in its ranks, the Argentinian army advanced northwards through the center of the province of Entre Ríos, avoiding crossing waterways.
November 1810: Juan Ángel Michelena was a Spanish military officer who led the royalist forces in the region during the Argentine War of Independence. Concepción del Uruguay was a strategic town in the Entre Ríos Province of modern-day Argentina, which was part of Spanish America at the time.
December 1810: On December 19, Belgrano crossed the Paraná River with the bulk of the revolutionary army and attacked the fortified position of Campichuelo, from where the royalists withdrew after a brief exchange of blows.
December 1810: The patriots occupied the evacuated village of Itapúa without a fight.
January 1811: In 1811, General Manuel Belgrano led his troops from the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata in a challenging march. They achieved a minor triumph at Maracaná, close to the Tebicuary River, during the Paraguayan War of Independence.
January 1811: Belgrano showed up in Paraguay on January 15, 1811.
January 1811: On January 19, the advance of Belgrano's army began the battle of Paraguarí. Despite the numerical disadvantage, 460 men against 6,000, the independentists managed to seize the enemy position. They skidded when the Paraguayans managed to regroup and counterattack, Belgrano was forced to retreat along the route by which he had come, but was not pursued.
March 1811: A few days after the battle of Tacuarí the Argentine army left Paraguay.
36.3.3.Royalist reaction in Upper Peru
Was a counterattack by Royalist troops against Argentina in the region of Upper Peru (Bolivia) during the Argentine War of Independence.
April 1811: A royalist counter-revolution broke out in Potosí.
June 1811: Battle of Huaqui: fought as part of the Spanish-American wars of independence, it was an armed confrontation fought between an army set up by the junta installed in Buenos Aires following the May Revolution and the forces loyal to the Crown of Spain who remained loyal to the Viceroy of Peru . Following it, the patriot army was forced to hastily abandon the entire territory of Upper Peru.
June 1811: In 1811, the natives of Omasuyos, Pacajes, and Larecaja in Bolivia were incited to revolt by Pedro Domingo Murillo and other revolutionary leaders. They rejected the royalist restoration and joined the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata in their fight for independence.
August 1811: In early August 1811, the indigenous forces of Juan Manuel Cáceres, a former lieutenant of Túpac Catari in the 1780 rebellion, occupied and burned the city of La Paz in present-day Bolivia.
August 1811: Rivero, beaten by Ramírez Orozco on August 13 in the battle of Sipe Sipe, realizing the futility of all his resistance and listening to the request for peace from the inhabitants of Cochabamba, urged an end to hostilities, handed over his troops and was incorporated into the royalist army. Cochabamba was peacefully occupied by Goyeneche.
36.3.4.Upper Peru Front
Was the theatre of war in Upper Peru (corresponding to modern-day Bolivia) during the Argentine War of Indipendence.
October 1811: The troops of the city of La Paz, led by General Pedro Domingo Murillo, defeated the 1,200 men of Colonel Jerónimo Marrón de Lombera on 6 October 1811 at Sica Sica, during the Bolivian War of Independence.
October 1811: Oruro, a city in present-day Bolivia, declared its support for the revolutionaries.
November 1811: In 1811, during the Bolivian War of Independence, Colonels Benavente and Lombera led Spanish forces to take control of La Paz, despite a small victory by the independentists at Tiquina. This event marked a setback for the independence movement in Spanish America.
January 1812: The forces of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata managed to take the village of Chayanta.
January 1812: Lieutenant Colonel Martín Miguel de Güemes, a prominent military leader in the Argentine War of Independence, was sent by General Manuel Belgrano to recover Tarija from Spanish forces. He successfully achieved this on 18 January 1812.
May 1812: In 1812, General Eustaquio Méndez led the royalist army to victory in the battle of Pocona against General Manuel Ascencio Padilla, who was fighting for the independence of Spanish America. The defeat of Padilla's forces allowed the royalists to advance towards the city.
May 1812: Cochabamba again fell into royalist hands.
August 1812: On August 23, the civilian population and the Argentine army left San Salvador de Jujuy, which was shortly after occupied by the royalists.
September 1812: Salta fell into the hands of a royalist battalion.
February 1813: The battle of Salta in 1813 was a key victory for the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, led by General Manuel Belgrano. The surrender of Spanish royalist forces, commanded by General Pio Tristán, marked a significant turning point in the Argentine War of Independence.
March 1813: Spanish royalist General Goyeneche evacuated Potosí, a city in present-day Bolivia, and retreated to Oruro.
March 1813: Spanish general Ramírez Orozco, abandoned Chuquisaca.
March 1813: The Argentinian Northern Army occupied Tupiza during its advance.
April 1813: In 1813, during the Latin American Wars of Independence, both Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Cochabamba declared their support for the independence movement led by General Manuel Belgrano of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata. This marked a significant step towards breaking away from Spanish colonial rule in the region.
November 1813: Battle of Ayohuma: Royalist victory. Northern Army retreat to Jujuy.
36.3.4.1.Third Upper Peru Campaign
Was an Argentine military campaign in Upper Peru (corresponding to modern-day Bolivia) during the Argentine War of Indipendence.
December 1815: In 1815, Chuquisaca was occupied by the leaders of the two republics of La Laguna and Vallegrande, José Miguel Lanza (Padilla) and Juan Antonio Álvarez de Arenales. The territory then went to the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata.
December 1815: General Juan Antonio Álvarez de Arenales, a prominent military leader in the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, seized Cochabamba in 1815 during the War of Independence in South America. Cochabamba was a strategic location in the fight against Spanish colonial rule.
January 1816: After the Battle of Sipe on November 29, the Spanish occupied all the cities of Upper Peru during the month of December, except Santa Cruz de la Sierra.
April 1816: Tarija fell into the hands of the royalists.
May 1816: In 1816, in Cinti, Vicente Camargo, a leader of the Repubblichetta di Cinti, was killed after suffering three defeats in March and April. This marked the end of the short-lived independent republic in the region, which was part of Spanish America at the time.
36.3.5.Revolt in Patagonia (1814)
Was a revolt in Patagonia during the Argentine War of Independence.
May 1812: In April 1812, a rebellion that broke out in the isolated fort of Carmen de Patagones, in Patagonia, led by Faustino Ansay, a prisoner in the locality after he had been deposed from his duties in Mendoza, allowed the royalists to take possession of the port.
December 1814: In 1814, the city of Carmen de Patagones was officially incorporated into the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata.
36.3.6.Uruguay Front
Was an Argentine military campaign in Uruguay during the Argentine War of Indipendence.
October 1812: The Patriot army again laid siege to Montevideo.
March 1814: In rapid succession, the territories of Corrientes and Misiones, with the villages of the interior of the Banda Oriental, declared themselves in favor of the federalism advocated by Artigas.
May 1814: Alvear, a military leader and politician from the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, occupied Montevideo on May 23, 1814.
36.3.7.Guerra Gaucha
Was a series of battles and guerrila actions between Spanish Royalist troops and Argentine troops in the Salta del Tucumán area of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata during the Argentine War of Independence. .
May 1814: Antonio José de Sucre and Simón Bolívar, achieved a great victory in the battle of La Florida against Spanish forces. Following their success, they were able to take control of Cochabamba.
May 1814: In 1814, General Juan Ramírez de Orozco, a Spanish royalist military leader, occupied the city of Salta in present-day Argentina during the Argentine War of Independence. Salta was part of the Spanish America territory at the time.
May 1814: On May 27, 1814, Spanish General Joaquín de la Pezuela entered Jujuy, a province in present-day Argentina. This event marked the beginning of the Spanish reconquest of the region during the Argentine War of Independence.
August 1814: General José de San Martín, leader of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, ordered Martín Miguel de Güemes to organize guerilla actions against the Spanish forces in the region. Güemes' gauchos successfully disrupted the Spanish advance, leading to the withdrawal of General Joaquín de la Pezuela's army from Jujuy in 1814.
January 1817: General Manuel Belgrano entered Jujuy on 6 January 1817 during the Argentine War of Independence. Belgrano was a key military leader in the struggle for independence from Spanish rule in South America.
April 1817: After failing to consolidate his positions and after receiving increasingly certain news of the triumph of General José de San Martín in Chile, Viceroy José de la Serna abandoned Salta and Jujuy in March 1817, retreating to Tupiza.
January 1818: On January 14, 1818, Spanish forces occupied Jujuy.
January 1818: After the Battle of Suipacha in 1818, General Manuel Belgrano evacuated the city of Jujuy and retreated to Yavi, in present-day Argentina. Belgrano was a key military leader in the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata during the Argentine War of Independence.
March 1819: On March 26, the Spanish occupied San Salvador de Jujuy.
March 1819: The Spanish evacuated the city of Jujuy, retreating to Yavi.
May 1820: Ramírez Orozco was a Spanish military leader who took command of the Spanish forces in Upper Peru. Jujuy was a province in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, located in present-day Argentina. The occupation of Jujuy was part of the Spanish efforts to maintain control over their territories in South America during the wars of independence.
May 1820: In 1820, General José de San Martín led the Argentine forces in the successful taking of Salta, a key city in the fight for independence from Spanish rule. This victory allowed them to advance further into Spanish America, reaching the Pasaje river.
July 1820: Compelled by the forces of the patriots, on July 14 Spanish royalist general Pedro Antonio Olañeta signed an armistice and withdrew to Upper Peru.
July 1822: The last royalist incursion into Argentine territory was made in June 1822 by General Pedro Antonio Olañeta, a loyalist to the Spanish crown. He arrived at Volcán, a few kilometers north of Jujuy, during the ongoing Argentine War of Independence.
December 1822: Volcán conquered by Argentina.
36.4.Chilean War of Independence
Was the independence war of the Captaincy General of Chile against Spanish rule.
March 1818: The Battle of Cancha Rayada, was fought in Chile between South American patriots and Spanish royalists, during the Osorio's campaign in the South American wars of independence. The result was a defeat for the patriot forces.
April 1818: In 1818, José de San Martín led the independence forces of Spanish America to a decisive victory over the Spanish royalists led by Mariano Osorio at the Battle of Maipú. This victory marked a turning point in the Chilean War of Independence, as the royalists were forced to retreat to Concepcion and never posed a significant threat to Santiago again.
April 1818: In 1818, José de San Martín defeated the Spanish royalists led by Mariano Osorio at the Battle of Maipú in Chile. This victory marked the retreat of the Spanish forces to Concepcion, solidifying Chile's independence from Spain.
36.4.1.Chilean independence declaration (1810)
Was the first independence declaration of Chile from Spain.
September 1810: The Government Junta of the Kingdom of Chile, also known as the First Junta, was organized with the same powers as a Royal Governor.
36.4.2.Spanish reconquista of Chile
Was a Spanish military campaign against Chilean revolutionaries. Chile was reconquered by Spain.
October 1814: The Battle of Rancagua also known in Chile as the Disaster of Rancagua occurred on October 1, 1814, to October 2, 1814, when the Spanish Army under the command of Mariano Osorio defeated the rebel Chilean forces led by Bernardo O’Higgins. A little while later, Osorio entered Santiago and put the rebellion of the Patria Vieja to an end.
36.4.3.Chilean independence declaration (1818)
Was the second and final independence declaration of Chile from Spain.
February 1818: In 1818, the Captaincy General of Chile declared itself independent from Spanish rule, becoming the Republic of Chile.
36.5.Colombian War of Independence
A series of related conflicts that resulted in the independence of the Spanish colonial Viceroyalty of New Granada.
36.5.1.Secession of New Grenada
Was the secession of the Viceroyalty of New Granada from Spain.
36.5.1.1.Colombian Secessionist States
Was the creation of several revolutionary polities that wanted to be independent from Spain in the Viceroyalty of New Granada.
April 1811: Under the guidance of Jorge Tadeo Lozano, the province of Santafé transformed itself into a state called the Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca.
November 1811: The "Congress of the United Provinces," meanwhile, started meeting again. Despite Cundinamarca's opposition, the Congress finally achieved an agreement and delivered the Act of Federation of the United Provinces of New Granada on November 27, 1811, which was written by Camilo Torres and signed by the deputies of five provinces.
January 1813: In 1813, Simón Bolívar captured Ocaña, a strategic city in present-day Colombia, during the Venezuelan War of Independence. This victory helped secure the route to Venezuela and furthered Bolívar's campaign against Spanish colonial rule.
February 1813: In 1813, Simón Bolívar led the United Provinces of New Granada to victory in the Battle of Cúcuta against royalist forces. This marked a significant turning point in the independence movement in South America.
36.5.1.2.Colombian Juntas
Was the creation of several revolutionary juntas that wanted to be independent from Spain in the Viceroyalty of New Granada.
June 1811: With Villavicencio's support, the open council forced Cartagena's governor to acquiesce to a co-government with two people chosen by the council, and then ousted the governor on June 14, establishing a government junta instead.
July 1811: Cali conquered by New Grenada Semi-Independent Juntas.
July 1811: Pamplona conquered by New Grenada Semi-Independent Juntas.
July 1811: Socorro conquered by New Grenada Semi-Independent Juntas.
August 1811: Independent juntas were established in Honda in July.
October 1811: Antioquia, Popayán, Neiva, Quibdó and Nóvita conquered by New Grenada Semi-Independent Juntas.
November 1811: Tunja conquered by New Grenada Semi-Independent Juntas.
36.5.1.3.Spanish reconquest of New Granada
Was the Spanish reconquest of modern-day Colombia, that had revolted against Spain.
May 1815: In 1815, Spain sent to its most seditious colonies the strongest expeditionary force that it had ever sent to the Americas. the force initially landed at Carupano and the island of Margarita in April, where no resistance was encountered.
June 1815: In 1815, Spanish General Pablo Morillo led troops to reinforce royalist forces in Cumaná and Caracas, territories in Spanish America. This marked a significant event in the Venezuelan War of Independence, as Morillo's arrival strengthened Spanish control in the region.
June 1815: Morillo's troops reinforced existing royalist forces in the Venezuelan mainland, entering Cumaná and Caracas in May.
December 1815: In 1815, Spanish forces led by General Pablo Morillo besieged Cartagena, a key city in Spanish America. The siege lasted five months before the fortified city fell in December.
May 1816: In 1816, Spanish forces led by Pablo Morillo and colonial forces led by Antonio Nariño completed the reconquest of New Granada, taking Bogotá on May 6, 1816. This marked a significant victory for the Spanish America territory.
June 1816: Battle of La Cumbo de El Tambo: In this battle the republican troops were totally defeated at the hands of the royalist army. With this triumph of the royalist forces, the Republic of Grenada ended and the Spanish reconquest of the territory of New Granada was terminated.
July 1816: Battle of La Plata: was the last military confrontation between royalists and patriots waged within the framework of the so-called Patria Boba.
36.6.Peruvian War of Independence
Was the independence war of the Viceroyalty of Peru against Spanish rule.
July 1821: Independence of the Protectorate of Peru from the Kingdom of Spain.
February 1824: Spanish loyalists recaptured of the fort on February 5, 1824.
February 1824: In 1824, Spanish troops commanded by General Juan Antonio Monet entered Lima, the capital of Peru.
36.6.1.First revolt of Tacna
Was a revolt against Spanish rule in Tacana, Viceroyalty of Peru.
July 1811: The Tacna insurrection of 1811 was an autonomist movement that took place in Tacna and proclaimed the independence of Peru.
July 1811: On July 25, 1811, the Peruvian separatists of Tacna learned of the defeat of the Argentine patriots in the battle of Guaqui. This event was the cause of total bewilderment between them, despite the fact that they were organizing themselves.
36.6.2.Huánuco Revolt
Was an indigenous revolt in Huánuco during the Peruvian War of Independence.
February 1812: Indigenous rebellion of Huánuco.
March 1812: Huánuco was reconquered by the Spanish forces.
March 1812: In 1812, Huánuco was conquered by the Spanish forces.
36.6.3.Second revolt of Tacna
Was a revolt against Spanish rule in Tacana, Viceroyalty of Peru.
October 1813: Under Enrique Pallardelli, the patriots of Tacna took possession of the city's barracks, capturing the royalist governor of the province.
November 1813: The Peruvian Rebels took refuge towards Upper Peru while Tacna fell once again to the royalists.
36.6.4.Cusco Revolt
Was a revolt against Spanish rule in Cusco, Viceroyalty of Peru.
August 1814: In 1814, the Agulo brothers, prominent Creoles, led a rebellion in Cusco against Spanish colonial rule. They formed the Junta of Cusco, establishing control over the territory and supporting the Peruvian Rebels in their fight for independence.
September 1814: The second patriot section was installed in Huamanga, under the command of Manual Hurtado de Mendoza and had for lieutenants José Gabriel Béjar and Mariano Angulo. Therefore Mendoza ordered to march on Huancayo, cities which they conquered peacefully.
September 1814: The Agulo and Pumacahua brothers organized an army divided into three sections: the first was sent to Upper Peru, under the command of León Pinelo and the Argentine priest Ildefonso Muñecas, and entered La Paz with 500 rifles and 20,000 armed Indians, with stones and slingshots, on September 14, 1814. On September 24, 1814 of the same year they took La Paz.
September 1814: Battle of Huanta: the actions lasted three days, during which the Peruvian patriots retreated, abandoning Huamanga.
November 1814: To recapture La Paz, the Spanish royalists marched from Oruto with a royalist regiment equipped with 1,500 rifles, and many Indians, commanded by the Spanish general Juan Ramírez. They met outside La Paz on November 1, 1814, with the defeat of the patriots.
November 1814: Mateo Pumacahua was a Peruvian rebel leader who led the patriots to victory against the royalists in Apacheta, Arequipa on November 9, 1814. Following their success, the patriots entered Arequipa and placed it under the Government Junta of Cusco on November 24, 1814.
November 1814: Upon being informed of the war measures ordered by the viceroy and knowing of the proximity of royalist troops, Pumacahua and Angulo decided to withdraw around Cuzco, leaving all the municipalities and occupied provinces free. An open town hall in Arequipa reconvened and hastened to accord allegiance to the king on November 30 , 1814 .
March 1815: Angulo, Béjar, Paz, and González, were leaders of a rebellion against Spanish colonial rule in Cusco, Peru. They were captured and executed on March 29, 1815, as part of the Crown's strategy to suppress dissent through public displays of punishment.
36.6.5.José de San Martín's liberation of Peru
Was a military campaign by Argentine general José de San Martín against Spanish rule in Peru.
September 1820: In 1820, Chilean rebels under the command of José de San Martín landed in Chincha, Peru, as part of their campaign to liberate South America from Spanish colonial rule. The rebels aimed to gain control of strategic territories like Chincha and Paracas to weaken Spanish control in the region.
November 1820: The Liberating Expedition was led by the Chilean General Jose de San Martin and the Peruvian rebel leader Simon Bolivar. They arrived in Huacho as part of their campaign to liberate Peru from Spanish colonial rule in 1820.
November 1820: In 1820, General José de San Martín, a leader in the South American struggle for independence, advanced to Huaura, Peru, where he set up his headquarters. The town was a strategic location for the Peruvian and Chilean rebels in their fight against Spanish colonial rule.
December 1820: Lambayeque fell to Peruvian and Chilean Rebels.
December 1820: In 1820, the Intendance of Trujillo, located in Peru, declared its independence from Spanish rule. The city of Trujillo, led by Mayor José Bernardo de Tagle, Marquis of Torre Tagle, played a key role in this rebellion.
January 1821: Piura and Cajamarca were taken from Spanish control by Peruvian and Chilean rebels on January 6, 1821.
June 1821: Hachapoyas and Jaén conquered by Peruvian and Chilean Rebels.
July 1821: The forces of the Liberation Army entered Lima.
August 1821: Maynas conquered by forces of chile and argentina.
September 1821: The Peruvian patriots achieved the surrender of the Callao fortresses.
36.6.5.1.Arenales campaign in central Peru
Was a military campaign by Argentine general Juan Antonio Álvarez de Arenales against Spanish rule in central Peru.
October 1820: In 1820, General Juan Antonio Álvarez de Arenales, a Peruvian military leader, occupied the city of Ica.
October 1820: In 1820, in Palpa, Peru, Quimper militants were defeated by pro-independence forces led by Col. Rufino Guido. He commanded 80 horseback hunters and mounted infantry in the battle against the rebels.
October 1820: On 14 October 1820 in Nasca, the Peruvian rebels under the leadership of José de la Riva-Agüero declared independence from Spanish rule. This event marked a significant moment in the struggle for independence in South America.
November 1820: Battle of Cuesta de Jauja.
November 1820: Battle of Tarma.
36.6.6.First Intermediate Campaign
Was a military campaign by Peruvian and Argentine patriots against Spanish rule in Peru.
November 1822: Simón Bolívar, a Venezuelan military and political leader, arrived in Arica, a port city in present-day Chile.
November 1822: In 1822, General Juan Antonio Álvarez de Arenales arrived in Iquique, where he landed a detachment to initiate action on Upper Peru.
December 1822: Valdés met him, fighting the battle of Torata.
January 1823: Peruvian forces advance towards Tacna.
January 1823: Spanish General José de la Serna's forces, led by José Carratalá, pursued and defeated the troops of rebel leader Antonio José de Sucre at the Battle of Moquegua. This victory marked a turning point in the conflict, leading to Peru relinquishing territories occupied during the first intermediate campaign.
36.6.7.Second Intermediate Campaign
Was a military campaign by Peruvian and Argentine patriots against Spanish rule in Peru.
June 1823: In 1823, Rear Admiral Guise led the assault and capture of Arica, a port city in present-day Chile. This military campaign was part of the Chilean War of Independence against Spanish colonial rule.
June 1823: General Santa Cruz arrived at the port and continued to Iquique to direct the landing operations of the patriot forces.
July 1823: The patriots occupied Tacna and Moquegua.
August 1823: In 1823, General Andrés de Santa Cruz, a prominent military leader in the Republic of Peru, led a group of patriots to occupy La Paz in Upper Peru as part of the ongoing struggle for independence from Spanish colonial rule.
August 1823: The city of Oruro was taken by the Peruvian forces led by General Agustín Gamarra.
August 1823: The realistic general Gerónimo Valdes attacked Santa Cruz, causing the battle of Zepita, on the shores of Lake Titicaca. The patriots were masters of the field, but without obtaining a decisive victory. But instead of consolidating his victory, Santa Cruz ordered the withdrawal towards the coast.
36.6.8.Royalist counterattack in Lima
Was a Spanish military campaign against Peruvian and Argentine patriots during the Peruvian War of Independence.
June 1823: Lima fell to the royalist troops led by General José de Canterac due to the weak military defense of the city.
July 1823: General Canterac, a Spanish military leader, withdrew from Lima, the capital of Peru. The city was then occupied by the independent forces.
36.6.9.Simon Bolivar's Campaign
Was a military campaign led by Simon Bolivar against Spanish rule in Peru.
July 1824: In June 1824, General Simón Bolívar's liberating army, supported by Peruvian montoneras, advanced towards the central highlands and arrived in Huánuco, Peru. This marked a significant moment in the South American wars of independence.
August 1824: In 1824, the liberating army led by Simón Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre continued its advance towards the South, bordering Lake Junín. This strategic movement ultimately led to the decisive Battle of Junín, securing the territory for the Republic of Peru.
December 1824: After the victory of Junín, Simón Bolívar, the leader of the independence movement in South America, returned to Lima, which had been taken by the independentist troops led by José de la Riva-Agüero. This event marked a significant step towards the liberation of Peru from Spanish colonial rule in 1824.
January 1826: Callao, the last Spanish stronghold in Peru, fell to the rebels.
36.6.10.Sucre's campaign in Upper Peru
Was a military campaign led by Antonio José de Sucre against Spanish rule in Peru.
December 1824: After defeating the Spanish at the Battle of Ayacucho, General Antonio José de Sucre led the liberating army of Peru towards Cuzco. On December 30, 1824, the Peruvian division, under the command of General Andrés de Santa Cruz, arrived in Cuzco.
January 1825: In the third week of January 1825, the army led by General Antonio José de Sucre continued towards Puno, a city located in present-day Peru. Sucre was a prominent military leader in the South American wars of independence and played a key role in the liberation of Peru from Spanish colonial rule.
February 1825: In 1825, Marshal Antonio José de Sucre led the Liberation Army across the Desaguadero River to occupy La Paz, Bolivia. Sucre was a trusted general of Simón Bolívar and played a key role in the independence movements in South America.
March 1825: A Peruvian Division arrived in Oruro.
March 1825: In 1825 the Peruvian army occupied Potosí.
April 1825: On 7 April, Spanish general José María Valdez surrendered in Chequelte to Peruvian general Urdininea, putting an end to the war in Upper Peru.
36.7.Ecuadorian War of Independence
Was fought from 1820 to 1822 between Spain and several South American armies over control of the Royal Audience of Quito, a Spanish colonial jurisdiction which later became the modern Republic of Ecuador.
October 1820: The port city of Guayaquil proclaimed its independence in 1820 after a brief and almost bloodless revolt against the Spanish colonial garrison.
October 1820: The village of Samborondón in Ecuador declared its independence from Spanish colonial rule.
October 1820: Daule conquered by Guayaquil Rebels.
October 1820: Naranjal conquered by Guayaquil Rebels.
November 1820: The city of Cuenca declared its independence from Spanish rule in 1820.
November 1820: The División Protectora de Quito launches a campaign with the goal of liberating the entire Free Province of Guayaquil, achieving victory in the Battle of Camino Real.
December 1820: The city of Cuenca, located in present-day Ecuador, was taken over by the Royalists, loyal to the Spanish crown, after defeating the Patriots, who were fighting for independence, in the Battle of Verdeloma on December 20, 1820.
August 1821: The Battle of Yaguachi in 1821 was a decisive victory for the forces led by General Jose de Villamil and General Juan Illingworth, securing the independence of the Province of Guayaquil from Spanish colonial rule. This victory ultimately led to the establishment of the Free Province of Guayaquil.
January 1822: On January 15, 1822, a military contingent of the Peruvian Army was sent by José de San Martín to help the troops of Antonio José de Sucre. On the 20th, they entered Ecuadorian territory by crossing the Río Macará, then entered the town of Loja without fighting.
February 1822: In 1822, General Antonio José de Sucre, a prominent military leader in the South American wars of independence, joined forces with General Andrés de Santa Cruz in the indigenous village of Saraguro. This strategic alliance played a crucial role in the liberation of Ecuador from Spanish colonial rule, leading to the incorporation of Saraguro into the Free Province of Guayaquil.
April 1822: Battle of Riobamba.
May 1822: Antonio José de Sucre, a Venezuelan independence leader and close ally of Simón Bolívar, led his army to Quito in 1822. The Spanish forces in the city surrendered to Sucre, leading to the territory being incorporated into the Free Province of Guayaquil.
Was the independence war of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (a predecessor of modern-day Mexico) against Spanish rule.
September 1810: The beginning stage of the Mexican War of Independence corresponds to the popular uprising led by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla . Discovered by the Spanish, the conspirators in Querétaro had no alternative but to go to arms at an earlier date than originally planned. The members of the conspiracy were without a support base at that time, so Hidalgo had to summon the people of Dolores to revolt against the Spanish authorities on September 16.
September 1810: New Spain rebels reached the vicinity of Celaya.
September 1810: Battle of Guanajuato: after several hours of combat, the royalists entered Guanajuato and executed the insurgents. Finally, the insurgent forces escaped to Guadalajara.
September 1810: From Celaya, the insurgents left in a northwesterly direction and on their way seized Salamanca , Irapuato and Silao . When they reached the vicinity of Guanajuato on September 28 , the number of the rebels had increased considerably.
September 1810: In 1810, during the Mexican War of Independence, Miguel Hidalgo led a group of rebels in storming the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato, New Spain. This event marked a significant victory for the rebels in their fight against Spanish colonial rule.
September 1810: In 1810, the 'Taking of Valladolid' occurred in present-day Mexico. The territory was under the control of New Spain rebels led by Miguel Hidalgo and Ignacio Allende. This event marked a significant moment in the Mexican War of Independence against Spanish colonial rule.
October 1810: José María Morelos, a Mexican revolutionary leader, began his campaign in Carácuaro.
October 1810: Battle of Monte de las Cruces.
November 1810: At this point, the sympathizers of the insurgents occupied other cities throughout the territory of New Spain. Rafael Iriarte controlled León, Aguascalientes and Zacatecas. Luis de Herrera and Juan Villerías occupied San Luis Potosí. In Toluca and Zitácuaro was Benedicto López. José María Morelos had already joined the people of Michoacán and Mexico to the war while Miguel Sánchez and Juli an Villagrán controlled the Mezquital Valley to the north of Mexico's administration.
November 1810: Battle of Zacoalco.
November 1810: José Antonio Torres was a Mexican rebel leader who fought against the Spanish colonial forces during the Mexican War of Independence. La Barca was a town in New Spain (present-day Mexico) where Torres achieved a significant victory in November 1810. This event marked a turning point in the rebellion against Spanish rule.
November 1810: The insurgents led by Miguel Hidalgo and Ignacio Allende were attacked by the Spanish army on November 7, 1810, in Aculco, during the Mexican War of Independence. This event marked a significant moment in the struggle for independence from Spanish rule in Spanish America.
November 1810: Guadalajara was taken byJ ose Antonio Torres, a leader of the rebel forces fighting against Spanish colonial rule in New Spain.
November 1810: In 1810, during the Mexican War of Independence, José María Mercado, a rebel leader, successfully took control of the Tepic and San Blas squares in New Spain without any violence on November 28 and December 1, respectively.
December 1810: In 1810, during the Mexican War of Independence, José María Mercado, a rebel leader, successfully took control of the Tepic and San Blas squares in New Spain without any violence on November 28 and December 1, respectively.
December 1810: Northern provinces such as Texas, Coahuila, and Nuevo León joined the insurgent cause.
December 1810: José María Mercado was a Mexican rebel leader who fought against Spanish colonial rule in the early 19th century. Tepic and San Blas were important cities in the region of Nueva Galicia, which was part of New Spain. Mercado's occupation of these cities in 1810 was a significant victory for the rebel forces.
December 1810: José María González Hermosillo was a Mexican revolutionary leader who initiated the rebellion in Real del Rosario, Sinaloa in 1810. The Battle of Real of the Rosary marked the beginning of the uprising against Spanish colonial rule in New Spain.
January 1811: After the rebel defeat Zacatecas didn't support the rebels anymore. Allende led the troop towards Zacatecas, without finding help in that city they decided to head towards Saltillo.
January 1811: Spanish forces defeated the Mexican rebels in Tepic.
March 1811: The rebels fled to the north to Saltillo. Only the northern regions of Mexico remained under rebel control.
March 1811: The New Spain rebel army is destroyed. Only the Saltillo region remains under rebel control.
March 1811: Ignacio Rayón, a prominent leader in the Mexican War of Independence, moved out from Saltillo to Zacatecas.
April 1811: Battle of Zacatecas.
May 1811: Rayón left for Aguascalientes and was chased by General Miguel Emparán, who gave him a defeat in the Battle of Maguey. However, Rayón was able to escape to La Piedad and Zamora. When Calleja arrived in the city of Zacatecas, where Víctor Rosales had remained in command of a thousand men. This accepted the offered pardon. In any case, Calleja ordered thirteen insurgents to be shot and a year later Rosales rejoined the rebellion.
May 1811: In 1811, during the Mexican War of Independence, Spanish General Joaquín Arredondo captured Plaza de Tula from the insurgents.
June 1811: On June 21, the Spanish forces took Matehuala.
July 1811: Colima conquered by New Spain Rebels.
July 1811: From late July to mid-August, the insurgent revolution flared up again in Aguascalientes and Zacatecas.
July 1811: Spanish Viceroyal forces under the command of Rosendo Porlier recovered the squares de Sayula, Zacoalco and Zapotlán el Grande.
August 1811: From late July to mid-August, the insurgent revolution flared up again in Aguascalientes and Zacatecas.
37.1.Morelos' Campaigns
Was a military campaign by the rebels of New Spain (Mexico) led by José María Morelos against Spanish rule during the Mexican War of Independence.
January 1811: New Spain rebels reached the port of Acapulco.
January 1811: In 1810, rebels Juan José, Pablo, and Hermenegildo Galeana joined forces in Técpan to campaign against New Spain. Juan José Galeana was a Mexican revolutionary leader, while Pablo and Hermenegildo were his brothers who also fought for independence.
January 1811: New Spain Rebels marched through Atoyac and Coyuca.
January 1811: In 1810, Mexican rebels led by Vicente Guerrero and José María Morelos advanced through Petatlán in their fight against Spanish colonial rule in New Spain.
May 1811: In 1811, during the Mexican War of Independence, rebel forces led by José María Morelos defeated the viceregal forces in the squares of Chichihualco, Chilpancingo, and Tixtla.
December 1811: In 1811, José María Morelos entered Izúcar, currently Izúcar de Matamoros, during the Mexican War of Independence. Morelos was a prominent leader of the rebellion against Spanish colonial rule in New Spain.
December 1811: In 1811, in Chiautla, Mexico, the insurgent group led by Jose Maria Morelos defeated the Spanish royalist forces led by Mateo Musitu. Morelos was a key leader in the Mexican War of Independence against Spanish colonial rule.
January 1812: In 1811, the Spanish royalist forces, led by General Felix Maria Calleja, were defeated in Chilapa by the insurgent forces of Jose Maria Morelos. This victory added Chilapa to the territories controlled by the rebels during the Mexican War of Independence.
January 1812: In 1811, rebel leader Nicolás Bravo took control of the territories of Acatlán and Huajuapan from the Spanish colonial authorities in New Spain.
January 1812: The priest of Carácuaro, José María Morelos, led the rebel army during the Mexican War of Independence. Miguel Bravo was a military leader who fought alongside Morelos. Huitzuco was a town in New Spain (now Mexico) where the rebels passed through on their way to Oaxaca in 1811.
January 1812: Hermenegildo Galeana was a Mexican revolutionary leader who fought against Spanish colonial rule in the early 19th century. Taxco was a town in New Spain (present-day Mexico) where rebels led by Galeana were active in the fight for independence in 1811.
October 1812: Morelos successfully achieved the Taking of Orizaba.
November 1812: Morelos and his army occupied the city of Oaxaca.
January 1813: New insurgent rebellions led by Juan Nepomuceno Rosáins, Máximo Machorro, Camilo Suárez and Vicente Gómez began in Chalchicomula, Huamantla, Atlixco, Tepeaca and Tehuacán.
January 1813: In 1812, during the Mexican War of Independence, Albino Garcia, a leader of the rebel forces, successfully took the city of Irapuato in the territory of New Spain.
January 1813: The forts of Córdoba, Orizaba and Xalapa were freed by the rebels.
January 1813: In 1812, the Mexican revolutionary leader José María Morelos led the rebels to conquer the town of Cuautla in New Spain. This victory was a significant moment in the fight for Mexican independence from Spanish colonial rule.
April 1813: Morelos Oaxaca left towards the port of Acapulco , arriving at the Veladero the 29 of March . The place was defended by the realist Pedro Antonio Vélez, who succumbed to the attacks, losing the city on April 12.
March 1814: In 1814, the city of Oaxaca was retaken by the Royalists.
June 1814: In 1814, Lieutenant Colonel Fernández de Avilés, a Spanish military leader, defeated Hermenegildo Galeana, a Mexican insurgent, near Coyuca. This event took place during the Mexican War of Independence, as part of the struggle between Spanish forces and Mexican revolutionaries.
December 1815: Morelos was captured 5 November 1815, interrogated, was tried and executed by firing squad. With his death, conventional warfare ended and guerrilla warfare continued uninterrupted.. After Morelos' death , insurgent groups fought in isolation; approximately twenty thousand rebels continued to fight. .
37.2.Treaty of Cordova
Was a treaty signed on August 24, 1821 where Spain recognized the independence of Mexico. .
August 1821: Russian viceroy Juan O'Donojú and Mexican emperor Agustín de Iturbide signed the Treaty of Cordoba which recognized Mexico as an independent nation.
Paraguay declared independence from Spain in 1811 after the creation of a local ruling Junta.
May 1811: Paraguay declared independence after overthrowing local Spanish rule on May 14, 1811.
Was a war between the United States of America and Great Britain. Tensions originated in long-standing differences over territorial expansion in North America and British support for Native American tribes who opposed U.S. colonial settlement in the Northwest Territory.
39.1.Southern theatre (War of 1812)
Was the southern theatre of the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom.
April 1813: The Mississippi Territory annexed the Mobile area, formerly part of West Florida, from the Spanish in March 1813.
November 1814: General Andrew Jackson attacks and captures Pensacola, Florida, from Spanish forces.
39.2.Treaty of Ghent
Was the treaty that ended the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom.
December 1814: Treaty of Ghent: The treaty ended the War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain (and Spain). All captured territories were restored.
Was a military expedition by the Bourbon King of France, Louis XVIII, to help the Spanish Royalists restore King Ferdinand VII of Spain to the absolute power of which he had been deprived during the Liberal Triennium.
July 1823: To the east and the southeast, Gabriel Jean Joseph Molitor pushed back General Francisco Ballesteros into Aragon, pursuing him as far as Murcia and Granada, winning an engagement at Campillo de Arenas on 28 July.
August 1823: The city of Coruna surrendered to French forces on 21 August.
August 1823: The city of Coruna surrendered on 21 August.
September 1823: Pamplona conquered by france.
September 1823: San Sebastián conquered by france.
September 1823: Cádiz surrendered to the French.
November 1823: After a 14-month siege, Barcelona surrendered to French forces, leaving Catalonia under French control.
November 1823: Alicante fell to the French forces.
January 1829: The gradual evacuation of French forces from Spain was not completed until 1828.
Was a war between Spain and Morocco that began with a conflict over the borders of the Spanish city of Ceuta.
February 1860: In 1860, Spanish forces led by General Leopoldo O'Donnell entered Tetuán, ending the Battle of Tetuán and the Hispano-Moroccan War. This military occupation marked Spain's control over the city and surrounding territory.
April 1860: The Spanish possession of Sidi Ifni expanded its borders (before it was just the Santa Cruz settlement).
April 1860: In 1860, after the Spanish-Moroccan War, General Leopoldo O'Donnell withdrew his troops from Tetuán once Morocco paid compensation. The funds were partially provided by the British, and the territory was returned to the Sultanate of Morocco.
April 1860: The area of domain of Ceuta was increased.
Was an independence war in Santo Domingo against Spain, that had reconquered the region a few years before. The war resulted in the restoration of Dominican sovereignty.
September 1863: Town after town in the region of Cibao joined the rebellion against Spain.
July 1865: In 1865, Queen Isabella II of Spain signed the annulment of the annexation of the Dominican Republic. By July 15 of the same year, all Spanish troops had left the island, marking the end of Spanish colonial rule in the Dominican Republic.
The 1864 Treaty of Lisbon partitioned the territory of Couto Misto, an independent microstate, between Spain and Portugal.
September 1864: Couto Misto operated as a sovereign state in its own right until the 1864 Treaty of Lisbon partitioned the territory with Spain (which annexed most of the land including the three villages).
Was revolt against the Spanish domain in Cuba.
October 1868: Cuban rebels captured the city of Bayamo after three days of intense fighting.
November 1868: The territory of Camagüey joined the rebellion, further escalating the Cuban revolt in Oriente province.
January 1869: The city of Bayamo was retaken by the Spanish forces led by General Manuel Salcedo after being burned to the ground.
February 1869: In early February 1869, Las Villas, a province in Cuba, joined the Cuban Rebels in their fight for independence from Spanish colonial rule.
January 1876: Gómez began an invasion of Western Cuba in 1875, but the vast majority of slaves and wealthy sugar producers in the region did not join the revolt.
February 1878: General Arsenio Martínez Campos was a Spanish military officer who arrived in Cuba in 1878 to implement a new policy. The Pact of Zanjón was signed on February 10, 1878, by a negotiating committee, effectively ending the Ten Years' War between Cuban rebels and Spain.
May 1878: Except for the resistance of a small group in Oriente led by General Garcia and Antonio Maceo Grajales, who protested in Los Mangos de Baraguá on March 15. The provisional government convinced Maceo to give up, and with his surrender, the war ended on May 28, 1878.
Was revolt against the Spanish domain in Cuba.
August 1879: Cuban revolutionaries initiated a rebellion in La Rioja, near Holguín, declaring independence from Spanish colonial rule.
October 1880: The Cuban rebels were defeated by Spanish forces in Roja, in proximity of Holguín.
Was the last liberation war fought on Cuba against Spain. Due to the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, Cuba was occupied by the United States.
February 1895: An insurrection began in Cuba with uprisings all across the island (particularly Santiago, Guantánamo, Jiguaní, San Luis, El Cobre, El Caney, Alto Songo, Bayate, and Baire).
April 1895: In 1895, Cuban Rebels led by Major General Antonio Maceo landed on the coast near Baracoa in two expeditions on April 1 and 11. Maceo was a prominent leader in the Cuban War of Independence against Spanish colonial rule.
April 1895: On April 11, 1895, the rebel leader José Martí and 4 other members of the revolt landed in Playitas.
July 1895: By the end of June 1895, all of Camagüey was under the control of Cuban Rebels.
February 1896: As of january 1896 spain controlled basically only the western side of the island and had built a broiad belt "from Jucaro in the south to Morón in the north".
Was a war of independence of the Philippines, at the time part of the Spanish East Indies, against the Spanish Empire. However, the Philippine efforts proved useless as the outbreak of Spanish-American War resulted in the U.S. army invading and occupying the Philippines.
47.1.First Phase (Philippine Revolution)
Was the first phase of the Philippine Revolution, a revolt against Spanish rule.
January 1897: By December, there were three major centers of rebellion: Cavite (under Mariano Alvarez, Baldomero Aguinaldo and others), Bulacan (under Mariano Llanera) and Morong (now part of Rizal, under Bonifacio).
March 1897: In 1897, government troops led by General Camilo Polavieja, with the support of new recruits from Spain, recaptured several towns in Cavite, including Imus, during the Philippine Revolution against Spanish colonial rule.
June 1897: In May 1897, the Spanish captured Maragondon.
July 1897: By June, the Spanish had taken Mendez Nunez, Amadeo, Alfonso, Bailen and Magallanes with little resistance.
November 1897: Aguinaldo and his men retreated northward, from one town to the next, until they finally settled in Biak-na-Bato, in the town of San Miguel de Mayumo in Bulacan. Here they established what became known as the Republic of Biak-na-Bato.
December 1897: The Pact of Biak-na-Bato, signed on December 15, 1897, created a truce between Spanish colonial Governor-General Fernando Primo de Rivera and the revolutionary leader Emilio Aguinaldo to end the Philippine Revolution.
47.2.Second Phase (Philippine Revolution)
Was the second phase of the Philippine Revolution, a revolt against Spanish rule. The First Philippine Republic was proclaimed.
May 1898: In the Battle of Alapan, Aguinaldo raided the last remaining stronghold of the Spanish Empire in Cavite.
June 1898: The Philippine rebels captured Imus and Bacoor in Cavite, Parañaque and Las Piñas in Morong, Macabebe, and San Fernando in Pampanga, as well as Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Bataan, Tayabas, and the Camarines provinces, were liberated by the Filipinos. They were also able to capture the port of Dalahican in Cavite.
Was a war between Spain and the United States of America. The immediate cause of the war was the American support to Cuban independence.
48.1.Pacific theatre (Spanish-American War)
Was the Pacific theatre of the Spanish-American War.
May 1898: The first battle between American and Spanish forces was at Manila Bay where, on May 1, Commodore George Dewey, commanding the U.S. Navy's Asiatic Squadron aboard USS Olympia, in a matter of hours defeated a Spanish squadron under Admiral Patricio Montojo.
June 1898: A small U.S. task force under Captain Henry Glass captures Guam.
48.2.Caribbean theatre of the Spanish-American War
Was the Caribbean theatre of the Spanish-American War. The United States of America eventually occupied Cuba.
48.2.1.Puerto Rico Campaign
Was a U.S. military campaign to occupy the island of Puerto Rico during the Spanish-American War.
July 1898: American forces of Major General Miles capture Guánica.
July 1898: U.S. general Garretson troops entered Yauco in the afternoon.
July 1898: The troops of Lt. Col. Francisco Puig leave the towns of Adjuntas and Utuado to advancing American forces.
July 1898: U.S. forces arrived at the town of Arecibo on the northern coast of the island.
August 1898: Arroyo (Puerto Rico) was taken by American forces.
August 1898: When the 4th August U.S. troops entered the town of Guayama, they discovered that the Spaniards had fled north and abandoned the city, ending the Battle of Guayama.
August 1898: On the evening of August 6, Captain Charles J. Barclay of Amphitrite ordered 28 sailors and 7 officers commanded by Lt. Charles N. Atwater and Assistant Engineer David J. Jenkins ashore to relight and occupy the Fajardo Light.
August 1898: The 4th Ohio requested reinforcements and on August 9, attacked the Spaniards and a short firefight erupted. The numerical superiority of the Americans forced the Spanish to retreat from Guamaní Heights.
August 1898: General James H. Wilson defeats Spanish forces in a smart action at Coamo, Puerto Rico.
August 1898: American forces set up camp on Silva Heights for the night and the following day they continued their drive to Mayagüez. They arrived the following morning to find that the Spanish forces had abandoned the city to retreat to the east towards Lares.
August 1898: All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended August 13, after President William McKinley and French Ambassador Jules Cambon, acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an armistice whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territory of Puerto Rico.
48.3.Treaty of Paris (1898)
Was the treaty that ended the Spanish-American War. Spain ceded most of its colonies (the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guam) to the United States.
December 1898: The United States and Spain conclude the Treaty of Paris, whereby the Philippines are ceded to the Americans for a sum of $20 million, along with Puerto Rico and Guam. Cuba is also declared free and the Spanish pledge to pay $400 million for all Cuban debts. This concludes nearly four centuries of Spanish rule in the Western Hemisphere.
April 1899: Cuba became a U.S. protectorate at the end of the Spanish-American War.
Was a global conflict between two coalitions, the Allies (primarily France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan, and the United States) and the Central Powers (led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire). It was mainly caused by the competition of the western countries over domain in Europe and in the rest of the world with their colonial empires. The war ended with the defeat of the Central Powers. The war also caused the Russian Revolution and the ensuing Russian Civil War.
49.1.World War I African Theatre
Was the African Theatre of World War I.
49.1.1.Kamerun Campaign
Took place in the German colony of Kamerun in the African theatre of the First World War when the British, French and Belgians invaded the German colony.
March 1916: Provisional division of militarly occupied German Kamerun between France and the United Kingdom.
Was an armed conflict fought from 1921 to 1926 between the occupying colonialists of Spain (joined by France in 1924) and the Berber tribes of the mountainous Rif region of northern Morocco.
50.1.Establishment of the Rif Republic
Was the establishment of the Rif Republic, a confederate republic in the Rif, a region in northern Morocco. It was created in September 1921, when the local people of the area revolted, declaring their independence from Spanish colonization.
September 1921: After the battle of Annual, Spain lost most of ist territories in Morocco. The independence of the Rif was proclaimed.
50.2.Spanish Counterattack
Was a Spanish military campaign against the Rif Republic, a polity created by local people that revolted against Spanish rule in Morocco.
February 1922: By January 1922 the Spanish had retaken their major fort at Monte Arruit.
50.3.Franco-Spanish Intervention
Was a joint French and Spanish military campaign against the Rif Republic, a polity created by local people that revolted against Spanish rule in Morocco.
September 1925: Spanish landing of Al Hoceima.
September 1925: Spanish forces take the heights of Mount Jebel Amekran.
May 1926: The leader of the Rif Republic, Abdelkrim, is forced to surrender to the Spanish, in Targuist.
Was a civil war in Spain fought between the Republicans (that wanted to keep the current Republican system) and the Nationalists (that wanted to end the Republican system and replace it with a Monarchy or a Fascist regime). The war resulted in the victory of the Conservatives led by General Francisco Franco, who established a totalitarian regime in Spain.
July 1936: In 1936, Spanish Morocco experienced an army uprising led by General Francisco Franco and other Nationalist forces. By late evening, the rebels had taken control of the entire territory.
July 1936: Pamplona, Zaragoza, Oviedo, Salamanca, Ávila, Segovia, and Cádiz fall in rebel hands.
July 1936: The town garrison of Oviedo, under the command of Colonel Antonio Aranda Mata, declared its support for the Nationalist uprising.
July 1936: Seville fell to the rebels.
July 1936: Rebels took Majorca.
July 1936: The Nationalist insurgents have control of the Spanish zones of Morocco, the Canary Islands, the Balearic Islands except Menorca, as well as Spain north of the Sierra de Guadarrama and the Ebro River (except Asturias, Cantabria, the north of the Basque Country, and Catalonia).
July 1936: Vallehermoso, Santa Cruz de Tenerife in la Gomera, a village of 4000, was the last place in the Canary Islands to fall to the rebels.
August 1936: Ibiza and Formentera are back in Republican hands.
August 1936: The Nationalists take Mérida.
August 1936: Nationalist forces under Colonel Juan Yagüe attack and conquer Badajoz.
August 1936: Battle of Almendralejo.
September 1936: In Punta Amer and Porto Cristo, the Republicans were unable to withstand the Nationalist counterattack on the ground and fell back in confusion, abandoning their guns and equipment. Their evacuation began on September 5, and the Republicans held the beaches until September 12, when the last ship steamed off in retreat.
September 1936: The Basque city of Irún is taken by the Nationalists.
September 1936: A week after the retreat from Majorca, Cabrera had once again fallen to the Nationalists.
September 1936: The Basques surrendered San Sebastián to the Nationalists rather than risk its destruction.
September 1936: The Nationalist rebellion succeeds in the island of Fernando Poo (Spanish Guinea).
September 1936: Ibiza was captured by the Nationalist Majorca garrison.
September 1936: Formentera conquered by Nationalists.
September 1936: Toledo falls to the Nationalists.
October 1936: Territorial gains by the Spanish Nationalists by September 1936.
October 1936: Nationalist troops from the Canary Islands disembarked at Bata and took control of the continental part of Spanish Guinea.
November 1936: The Nationalist army arrive in Madrid.
December 1936: Villarreal Offensive.
December 1936: Battle of Lopera.
January 1937: Nationalists take Boadilla.
February 1937: Málaga taken by Franco's troops.
March 1937: In 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, Nationalist forces led by General Francisco Franco advanced towards Madrid via Brihuega.
March 1937: Republican divisions under Cipriano Mera and Enrique Líster with 60 T-26 tanks of the Pavlov Brigade take back Brihuega.
June 1937: The Nationalists enter Bilbao without opposition.
July 1937: The International Brigades (IBs) took control of Quijorna, a town in Spain. The International Brigades were military units made up of volunteers from different countries who fought in support of the Second Spanish Republic against the Nationalist forces led by General Francisco Franco.
July 1937: Republican troops take Villanueva del Pardillo.
July 1937: Battle of Brunete.
August 1937: The Santoña Agreement was an agreement signed in the town of Guriezo, near Santoña, Cantabria, on August 24, 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, between politicians close to the Basque Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista Vasco or PNV), fighting for the Spanish Republicans, and Italian forces, fighting for Francisco Franco. With the agreement, the remnant Basque County fell to the Nationalists.
September 1937: Battle of Belchite.
November 1937: Territorial gains by the Spanish Nationalists by October 1937.
November 1937: Battle of Sabiñánigo.
April 1938: Battle of Gandesa.
April 1938: Battle of Lérida (1938).
December 1938: Territorial gains by the Spanish Nationalists by December 1938.
February 1939: Battle of Minorca (1939).
April 1939: The Spanish Republic was dissolved on 1 April 1939 after surrendering to the Nationalists. A military dictatorship under General Francisco Franco was established.
51.1.Asturias Offensive
Was a Nationalist offensive in Asturias during the Spanish Civil War.
September 1937: Nationalists capture Llanes.
September 1937: The Nationalists occupied Ribadesella.
September 1937: Battle of El Mazuco.
October 1937: Covadonga conquered by Nationalists.
October 1937: The Nationalist Navarrese Brigades enter Cangas de Onis.
October 1937: On 14 October Arriondas fell to the Nationalists.
October 1937: The Nationalists entered Gijón, completing the occupation of Asturias.
51.2.Aragon Offensive
Was a Nationalist offensive in Aragon during the Spanish Civil War.
March 1938: Battle of Caspe.
March 1938: On March 25, Yagüe (Nationalists) took Fraga.
April 1938: The Nationalists reached the Mediterranean at Vinaròs, dividing the Republican zone in two.
51.3.Catalonia Offensive
Was a Nationalist offensive in Catalonia during the Spanish Civil War.
January 1939: In 1939, during the Spanish Civil War, General Solchaga, a Nationalist military leader, attacked the town of Les Borges Blanques.
January 1939: The Moroccan Corps after a one-day march of 50 km occupied Tarragona.
January 1939: The Nationalist Aragon and Maestrazgo Corps conquered Cervera.
January 1939: On January 24, 1939, General Garcia Valiño, a Nationalist military leader during the Spanish Civil War, occupied Manresa, a city in Catalonia.
January 1939: The Nationalists finally occupied Barcelona.
February 1939: On February 2, the Nationalists entered Girona.
February 1939: The Nationalists occupied Figueres on February 8.
February 1939: By February 9, the Nationalists reached the French frontier, and on the following day the last units of Modesto's Army of the Ebro crossed into France and the Nationalists sealed the frontier.
51.4.Final offensive of the Spanish Civil War
Was the final Nationalist offensive of the Spanish Civil War which resulted in the occupation of Madrid and the surrender of the Republicans.
March 1939: Colonel Prada, commander of the Army of the Centre, surrendered to the Nationalist troops, who occupied Madrid.
March 1939: The Nationalists occupied Jaén, Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Albacete and Sagunto.
March 1939: The Nationalists occupied Valencia and Gambara’s troops entered Alicante.
March 1939: The Nationalists occupied Almeria, Murcia and Cartagena.
April 1939: By 1 April 1939, the Nationalists were in control of Spain and the civil war was effectively over.
Was a series of armed incursions into Spanish West Africa by Moroccan insurgents.
October 1957: Two villages on the outskirts of Sidi Ifni, Goulimine and Bou Izarguen, were occupied by 1,500 Moroccan soldiers.
February 1958: In 1958, Morocco invaded the northern region of Western Sahara up to Edchera. This military occupation was part of King Mohammed V's efforts to expand Moroccan territory and assert control over the region. The invasion sparked tensions with neighboring countries and led to ongoing conflicts over the sovereignty of Western Sahara.
February 1958: Morrocco invaded the north of Western Sahara up to Edchera.
February 1958: The 4th, 9th, and 13th Spanish Legion battalions, organised into a motorised group, drove the Moroccans from Edchera and advanced to Tafurdat and Smara.
February 1958: The Spanish army at El Aaiún, in conjunction with French forces from Fort Gouraud, struck the Moroccans on February 21, destroying Saharan Liberation Army concentrations between Bir Nazaran and Ausert.
March 1958: First to fall were the Moroccan mountain strongholds at Tan-Tan.
April 1958: The Treaty of Angra de Cintra, signed by Spain and Morocco on 1 April 1958, ended the Spanish protectorate in Morocco. Delivery to Morocco of Cabo Juby.
Was a conflict of Marocco and Mauritania (until 1979) against the Sahrawi Indigenous Polisario Front that followed the Spanish withdrawal from Spanish Sahara. The Sahrawi indigenous Polisario Front established the Sahrawi Republic and engaged in a guerrilla warfare with Moroccan forces. Morocco did also build several walls in the region to consolidate its control. The conflict ended with a ceasefire in 1991 with most of former Spanish Sahara under Moroccan control.
53.1.Moroccan-Mauretanian Invasion
Was the occupation and partition of Spanish Sahara by Morocco and Mauritania after the withdrawal of the Spanish forces.
November 1975: Moroccan troops capture Smara.
December 1975: Laayoune conquered by morocco.
December 1975: In 1975, Mauritanian President Mokhtar Ould Daddah's troops seized Tichla and Lagouira, marking the military occupation of the territory. This action was part of Mauritania's territorial expansion efforts in the region.
January 1976: The last Spanish troops leave Laâyoune while the Moroccan troops arrive in Dakhla.
January 1976: At the beginning of 1976, Mauritania, under the leadership of President Moktar Ould Daddah, theoretically controlled the southern third of Western Sahara, while Morocco, led by King Hassan II, controlled the northern two thirds. This division led to conflict and instability in the region.
January 1976: At the beginning of 1976, Mauritania, under President Moktar Ould Daddah, controlled the southern third of Western Sahara, while Morocco, under King Hassan II, controlled the northern two thirds through military occupation. This division was a result of the Madrid Accords of 1975, which divided the territory between the two countries.
Was a conflict between Spain and Morocco that took place over the small, uninhabited Perejil Island.
July 2002: Relations between Spain and Morocco degenerated on July 11, 2002 when a group of six Moroccan soldiers landed on Perejil Island and set up an outpost.
July 2002: On July 18, at 6:21 a.m., Spain landed on the Perejil Island ("Operation Romeo-Sierra"). The attack was carried out by 28 Spanish commando units from the Grupos de operaciones especiales deployed by 6 helicopters from Alicante. The Spanish Navy and Air Force provided support. The Moroccans left the island.
January 1483: Spanish conquest of the island of Gran Canaria.
December 1495: The Guanches were defeated by the Spanish at the battle of Aguere in November 1494. They were finally defeated at the second battle of Acentejo on December 25, 1495.
January 1500: Alonso de Ojeda was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who arrived in Curaçao and Bonaire in 1499. Bonaire was a part of the Spanish America territory at that time.
January 1500: The first Europeans to visit Aruba were Amerigo Vespucci and Alonso de Ojeda in 1499, who claimed the island for Spain.
January 1500: Alonso de Ojeda was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who led an expedition to the island of Curaçao in 1499. This marked the first recorded European contact with the island, which eventually became part of Spanish America.
January 1501: Foundation of Santa Cruz by Alonso de Ojeda in present-day Guajira peninsula.
January 1501: In 1500, the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela, by Spanish conquistador Pedro Alonso Niño and German adventurer Ambrosius Ehinger. Nueva Cádiz became a major center for pearl fishing in the region.
January 1501: Barbados was visited by Spanish navigators like Alonso de Ojeda and Juan de la Cosa in the late 15th century. It was claimed for the Spanish Crown, but later abandoned due to lack of resources and interest in colonization.
January 1501: The Spanish Empire claimed the British Virgin Islands in 1500 by discovery, but never settled them.
January 1502: Cumaná in Venezuela was the first permanent settlement founded by Europeans in the mainland Americas in 1501.
January 1503: Dakhla (Dajla, later Villa Cisneros) conquered by spain.
January 1504: Dakhla (Dajla, later Villa Cisneros) conquered by Wattasid Dynasty.
January 1506: In 1505, Spanish conquistador Diego de Almagro founded the town of Cazaza in present-day Chile. The territory was later incorporated into the larger Cazaza region. This period marked the beginning of Spanish colonization in the area.
January 1506: Bermuda was discovered in 1505 by Spanish explorer Juan de Bermúdez. The territory had no indigenous population at the time. The Spanish America claimed Bermuda as part of its colonial holdings.
January 1506: In 1505, the territory of Mers El Kébir was established. It was an important port city in Algeria, known for its strategic location on the Mediterranean coast. The territory was under the control of various powers throughout its history, including the Ottoman Empire and the Spanish Empire.
July 1508: Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera is occupied by Spain.
August 1508: Juan Ponce de León, a Spanish explorer and lieutenant under Columbus, founded the first Spanish settlement, Caparra, in Puerto Rico on 8 August 1508. This marked the beginning of Spanish colonization in the region.
January 1509: In 1502, on the coast of present-day Colombia, near the Gulf of Urabá, Spanish explorers led by Vasco Núñez de Balboa explored and conquered the area near the Atrato River. There they founded Santa María la Antigua del Darién (c. 1509).
May 1509: In 1509, Spanish forces captured the city of Oran, located in present-day Algeria.
January 1510: San Sebastian de Urabá was founded by Spanish conquistador Alonso de Ojeda in 1508.
January 1511: San Sebastián de Uraba was founded by Spanish conquistador Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1510. However, due to attacks by indigenous tribes and lack of resources, the settlement was abandoned within the year.
January 1511: In 1510, the Portuguese established Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña (later Puerto Cansado) in present-day Western Sahara. The territory was under Portuguese control until 1644 when it was captured by the Dutch.
January 1511: By 1510 most of the Caribbean was already under Spanish control.
January 1511: Tripoli (1510-1530), then ceded to the Knights Hospitaller, was lost in 1551.
January 1511: Spanish Béjaïa (Bugia) (1510-1555).
January 1511: Spanish conquest of Algiers (Argel).
January 1512: Cuba conquered by Spain.
January 1513: Tlemcen becomes a vassal of Aragon.
January 1514: In 1513, the Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado captured the territory of Cazaza, which was ruled by the Wattasid Dynasty. Cazaza was located in present-day Morocco and was an important strategic location during the early 16th century.
January 1514: Juan Ponce de León was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who led the first official European expedition to North America in 1513. He claimed peninsular Florida for Spain, establishing Spanish Florida as a territory of Spanish America.
January 1516: The Kingdom of Kuku was founded by the Kabyle Berber leader, Kuku, in 1515. It encompassed a significant portion of greater Kabylia in North Africa. Kuku was known for his military prowess and strategic leadership in uniting the Kabyle tribes under his rule.
January 1516: Spanish expansion in the New World by 1515.
October 1516: Alger conquered by Hayreddin Barbarossa.
January 1517: King Charles I, known as Emperor Charles V, in 1516 united all the kingdoms on the Iberian peninsula, save the Kingdoms of Portugal and the Algarve. At the same time his territories also encompassed the Habsburg domains in central Europe and in the Low Countries.
January 1517: The kingdom of Ait Abbas under Abdelaziz extended to the south and the surrounding mountains.
January 1517: The Spaniards, led by Juan Díaz de Solís, arrived in the territories of today's Uruguay in 1516. They were exploring the region in search of a passage to the Pacific Ocean. This marked the beginning of Spanish presence in the area, eventually leading to the colonization of Uruguay as part of Spanish America.
January 1517: Hayreddin Barbarossa conquered all the hinterland and western Algeria: Mitidja, Chelif, Titteri, Dahra and Ouarsenis.
January 1519: Tlemcen regained independence.
January 1520: Before Ottoman help could arrive, the Spanish retook the city of Algiers in 1519.
January 1521: From around 1520 the Genoese controlled the port of Panama, the first port on the Pacific founded after the conquest of the Americas; the Genoese obtained the concession to exploit the port mainly for the slave trade.
January 1522: The Tunisian Island of Djerba was controlled by Spanish forces from 1521 to 1524 and from 1559 to 1560. The Spanish called the Island Yerba.
January 1522: The Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan his crew were the first Europeans to arrive in the Mariana Islands.
January 1522: The Rajanate of Butuan is conquered by the Spanish East Indies.
December 1522: In 1522, Spain lost the Peñón to a Moroccan Berber attack that resulted in the deaths of the whole Spanish garrison. .
January 1525: The Spanish conquistadores, led by Aleixo Garcia, arrived in Paraguay in 1524.
January 1525: Santiago de Guatemala is occupied by Spanish forces (1524).
January 1525: The Kʼicheʼ capital, Qʼumarkaj, fell to Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado.
January 1525: Foundation of New Mexico.
January 1525: The Tunisian Island of Djerba was controlled by Spanish forces from 1521 to 1524 and from 1559 to 1560. The Spanish called the Island Yerba.
January 1526: In the early 16th century, the Spanish Empire conquered Modern-day el Salvador, incorporating it into the Viceroyalty of New Spain ruled from Mexico City.
January 1526: Antequera (Mexico) conquered by spain.
January 1527: San Miguel de Gualdape, founded in 1526 by Spanish explorer Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, was the first European settlement in what became the continental United States. Established on the coast of Georgia, near present-day Georgetown, South Carolina, the colony lasted less than four months before it was overwhelmed by disease, hunger, and a hostile Indian population.
May 1527: San Miguel de Gualdape, founded in 1526 by Spanish explorer Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, was the first European settlement in what became the continental United States. Established on the coast of Georgia, near present-day Georgetown, South Carolina, the colony lasted less than four months before it was overwhelmed by disease, hunger, and a hostile Indian population.
January 1528: The first highland colonial town in Chiapas, San Cristóbal de los Llanos, was established by Pedro de Portocarrero in 1527. Within a year, Spanish dominion extended over the upper drainage basin of the Grijalva River, Comitán, and the Ocosingo valley.
November 1528: Clipperton island was discovered by Alvaro Saavedra Cedrón on 15 November 1528. The expedition was commissioned by Hernán Cortés, the Spanish Conquistador in Mexico, to find a route to the Philippines.
January 1529: Polignano was a territory in Italy that was under Venetian control during two periods: from 1495 to 1509 and again from 1528 to 1530. The Republic of Venice was a powerful maritime republic in the Mediterranean during this time.
January 1529: In 1528, the territory of Otranto was under the rule of the Republic of Venice. The Superintendent during this time was Pietro Loredan, a prominent Venetian nobleman who held various political positions within the Republic.
January 1529: Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his cohort became the first Europeans to arrive in what is now Texas.
January 1529: In 1528, Brindisi came under the control of the Republic of Venice. This marked a period of Venetian rule in the region, following their conquest of Brindisi in 1496. The Venetians held control until 1509, when the territory was lost to the Kingdom of Naples.
January 1529: Klein-Venedig (Little Venice) was the most significant territory of the German colonization of the Americas, from 1528 to 1546, in which the Welser banking family of the Free Imperial City of Augsburg obtained colonial rights in the Province of Venezuela in return for debts owed by Emperor Charles V, who was also King of Spain.
January 1529: The colonial province of Chiapa was established by Diego Mazariegos in 1528.
January 1529: Monopoli, a strategic port city in southern Italy, was under Venetian control from 1528.
January 1529: Mola, a town in Italy, was again under Venetian control from 1528.
January 1530: Foundation of Valladolid (now Morelia).
July 1530: During an Ottoman siege in 1522, the Knights Hospitaller were expelled from Rhodes. They subsequently entered negotiations with Spanish Emperor Charles V. The Hospitallers eventually accepted Tripoli, Malta and Gozo as a fief on 23 March 1530, and they took control of the city of Tripoli on 25 July.
January 1531: Trinidad conquered by spain.
January 1531: In 1530, the last Tarascan king, Tangáxuan II, was overthrown by Spanish conquistador Nuño de Guzmán in the Purépecha Kingdom. This event marked the beginning of the Spanish conquest of the region in what is now known as Spanish America.
January 1531: Spanish conquest of Guatemala.
January 1531: Malta was ruled by the Order of Saint John as a vassal state of the Kingdom of Sicily from 1530.
January 1532: Honaine conquered by spain.
January 1532: Spanish foundation of the colony. Queen Joanna —at the moment the acting regent of Spain—, named the area "Reino de Nueva Galicia.".
January 1533: The Portuguese Empire, under the leadership of King John III, claimed the island of Barbados between 1532 and 1536. This marked the beginning of Portuguese presence in the region before eventually being taken over by the British in the 17th century.
January 1533: Peur was conquered by Spanish conquistadores in 1532. The Viceroyalty of Perú was established in 1542.
January 1534: Exploration from Peru resulted in the foundation of Tucumán in what is now northwest Argentina.
July 1535: In 1535, the Spanish forces captured Tunis from the Ottoman Empire. The territory remained under Spanish control until 1574, when it was returned to the local rulers of Tunis. This event marked a significant period of Spanish presence in North Africa.
July 1535: A year later the King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor Charles I and V seized Tunis, drove the Ottomans out and restored Muley Hassan as a Hapsburg tributary.
January 1536: Spanish forces captured the city of Bizerte in present-day Tunisia.
January 1536: In 1535, the Spanish under the command of Pedro Navarro captured the city of Annaba, known as Bona at the time.
January 1536: In 1535, the Spanish conquered La Goulette (La Goleta) from the Ottoman Empire.
January 1536: Honaine conquered by Kingdom of Tlemcen.
January 1538: Cali (Colombia) conquered by spain.
January 1538: In 1537, the Spanish forces under the command of Charles V captured the city of Sousse in present-day Tunisia. The territory was then ruled by the Spanish until 1574. This marked a period of Spanish control in the region, with Sousse becoming an important strategic outpost in the Mediterranean.
January 1539: In 1538, Castelnuovo in Montenegro was under Spanish military occupation after being conquered by Spanish tercios during the Holy League's unsuccessful campaign against the Ottoman Empire in the Eastern Mediterranean.
January 1539: Bogotá (Colombia) conquered by spain.
January 1540: The Spanish conquest of Honduras in 1539 was led by conquistador Hernán Cortés, who defeated the indigenous peoples and claimed the territory for Spanish America. This conquest played a significant role in the colonization of Central America by the Spanish Empire.
October 1540: Spanish conquest of Isla de Alboran.
January 1541: In 1540, Tabarka was taken over by the Genoese, who also controlled Jijel in Algeria. The Genoese held Tabarka until 1742, maintaining control over the territory for over two centuries.
January 1542: Campeche (Mexico) conquered by spain.
January 1543: Spanish occupation of the Kingdom of Tlemcen.
January 1543: Spanish conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado reaches northern Mexico (1540-42).
January 1543: The Mixtón War was fought from 1540 until 1542 between the Caxcanes, led by Tenamaxtli, and other Indigenous groups in northwestern Mexico against Spanish invaders.
January 1544: Bacalar was the first city in Yucatan which the Spanish Conquistadores succeeded in taking and holding in 1543.
January 1544: A Spanish expeditions led by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada and Sebastián de Belalcázar resulted in the conquest of the Muisca Confederation, a group of indigenous peoples in present-day Colombia. The territory was then incorporated into the Spanish Empire as part of the New Kingdom of Granada in 1543.
January 1544: In 1543, the Wattasid Dynasty took control of the Kingdom of Tlemcen, leading to the third period of Moroccan occupation.
January 1545: In 1544, King Charles I of Spain revoked the charter granted to the German banking family, the Welser family, for the territory of Klein Venedig (Little Venice) in present-day Venezuela. This decision marked the end of the Welser's control over the region in Spanish America.
January 1545: Tipu conquered by the Spanish in 1544.
January 1546: Charles V revoked the concession given to the German Welser banking family to colonize part of northern South America.
January 1547: Spanish conquest of Yucatán.
January 1547: Pedro de Valdivia was a Spanish conquistador and the first royal governor of Chile. In 1546, he reached Reloncaví Sound in his quest to conquer southern South America. This territory became part of Spanish America as a result of his efforts.
January 1547: The Juan Bautista Pastene expedition was led by the Spanish conquistador of the same name, who was tasked with exploring and claiming new territories in southern Chile for the Spanish Empire. The Bio-Bio River marked a significant geographical boundary in the region, separating Spanish America from the indigenous Mapuche territory.
September 1550: Mahdiya conquered by austria.
January 1551: In 1550, Mahdia was captured by the Ottoman Empire under the leadership of Turgut Reis, also known as Dragut. The territory of Mahdia was then incorporated into the Ottoman province of Mehdya.
January 1551: In 1550, the Spanish took control of Monastir, a city in present-day Tunisia. The territory was then governed by the Spanish for four years until 1554. This period marked a significant chapter in the history of Monastir as it was under Spanish rule during this time.
January 1553: La Imperial, Valdivia, and Villarrica conquered by spain.
January 1554: In 1553, Mahdia was captured by the Hafsid Kingdom of Spain. The city was previously under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The Hafsid Kingdom was ruled by the Hafsid dynasty, a Berber Muslim dynasty that controlled parts of North Africa.
January 1555: In 1554, Spanish conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba established the city of León in western Nicaragua. The Spanish colonization efforts in the region were focused on exploiting the area's resources and converting the indigenous population to Christianity. The Pacific littoral plain became a key area for Spanish economic and political control in the following decades.
January 1555: In 1554, the territory of Monastir was under Spanish control as part of the Hafsid Kingdom. Monastir was a strategic location in North Africa, and its control was contested by various powers including the Spanish Empire and the Hafsid Kingdom.
January 1556: Charles V, who was King of Spain and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, left the Spanish Empire to his son Philip and the Austrian Lands to his brother Ferdinand I.
January 1556: The Seventeen Provinces were a group of territories in the Low Countries, including modern-day Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg. Emperor Charles V was a powerful ruler of the Habsburg Empire who abdicated in 1556, passing the territories to his son, King Philip II of Spain.
January 1556: Charles V, who was King of Spain and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, left the Spanish Empire to his son Philip and the Austrian Lands to his brother Ferdinand I.
January 1557: In 1556, Milan became a subsidiary country of the Spanish crown as a result of the Habsburg division of inheritance.
July 1557: The Sienese fortresses, castles, ports, places and farmland of, namely, Porto Ercole, Orbetello, Talamone, Monte Argentario and Porto Santo Stefano" (a territory of about 287 square km) enter the State of the Presidi.
January 1558: Canete conquered by spain.
January 1559: Osorno conquered by Spain.
January 1560: The Duchy of Savoy conquers Cherasco.
January 1560: The Tunisian Island of Djerba was controlled by Spanish forces from 1521 to 1524 and from 1559 to 1560. The Spanish called the Island Yerba.
January 1560: Tolga and Biskra conquered by Kingdom of Ait Abbas.
January 1560: In 1559, the Kingdom of Ait Abbas gained control of Touggourt. El Hadj Khichan el Merbaï, a member of the loyal Hachem tribe, was appointed as Sheikh of Touggourt by the Kingdom.
January 1563: The Spanish colony of New Biscay was established in 1562 by Spanish conquistador Francisco de Ibarra, in what is now northern Mexico. The territory was part of Spanish America and played a significant role in the colonization of the region.
June 1564: Fort Caroline was an attempted French colonial settlement in Florida, located on the banks of the St. Johns River in present-day Duval County. It was established under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière on June 22, 1564, as a new territorial claim in French Florida.
September 1564: The Moroccans are forces to evacuate Penon de velez de la gomera, which is handed over to the Spaniards.
January 1565: Guam was not officially claimed by Spain until January 26, 1565, by General Miguel López de Legazpi.
June 1565: Rajanate of Cebu conquered by spain.
September 1565: In 1565, Spanish Admiral Menéndez de Avilés attacked Fort Caroline, a French Huguenot settlement in present-day Florida. He killed all the soldiers defending it, sparing only a few Catholics, and renamed the fort San Mateo.
January 1567: Arauco conquered by spain.
January 1567: Founded in 1566 on the site of Charlesfort, Santa Elena was the first capital of Spanish Florida.
January 1568: Castro conquered by spain.
January 1569: In 1568, the city of Hoorn in the Netherlands fell under Spanish control during the Eighty Years' War.
January 1570: Confederation of Madya-as conquered by spain.
January 1571: Fort Santa Elena was a Spanish settlement located in present-day South Carolina. It was occupied by Spanish conquistador Pedro Menéndez de Avilés until 1570, when it was destroyed by fire during conflicts with the local Native American tribes.
May 1571: The Spaniards take power over Manila, Tondo and Sapa.
June 1571: Annexation of the Rjanate of Manila by Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi.
January 1572: The Spanish conquistador Juan de Salcedo built the second fort, Fort San Felipe, in 1571 in the Philippines, specifically in the town of Vigan. This fort was constructed to protect the Spanish settlers from pirate attacks and local uprisings.
January 1572: Kingdom of Namayan conquered by spain.
January 1572: Cainta conquered by spain.
June 1572: On June 23 the fort of Huayna Pucará surrendered to Spanish artillery fire. The Inca army now in retreat opted to abandon their last city and head for the jungle to regroup. On June 24 the Spanish entered Vilcabamba.
January 1574: Hafsid Kingdom conquered by Spain.
January 1574: Spanish Bizerte fell to the Hafsid Kingdom.
January 1574: Ahmed Amokrane, a prominent leader of the Kingdom of Ait Abbas, conquered the territory of the Ouled Naïl from Bou Saâda to Djelfa.
January 1575: The Spanish, once reached the Carolines in the 16th century, established their sovereignty.
January 1575: Spain was the first European nation to explore the Palau islands in the 16th century, and they were made part of the Spanish East Indies in 1574.
January 1575: The coast of Samtoy, already familiar to Chinese and Japanese traders before Magellan's time, was known to the Spanish colonizers in 1572 when Juan de Salcedo traveled along Samtoy or what is now known as the Ilocos Provinces. Sent by the "Adelantado", Miguel López de Legazpi, to explore the whole island of Luzón, Salcedo founded Ciudad Fernandina in 1574 in the heart of Yloko settlement in Bigan, in what is now Ilocos Sur.
January 1576: By 1575 Spain conquered the territories of the Igorot people on the Philippines.
January 1576: By 1575 Spain conquered Dapitan.
January 1577: Spanish conquest of Pangasinan.
January 1577: The fort and town of San Felipe were abandoned in 1576 by Spanish explorer Pedro Menéndez de Avilés due to hostility from the local Native Americans, specifically the Timucua tribe. This marked the end of Spanish presence in the area.
January 1577: Hoorn is acquired by the Bishopric of Liège.
January 1578: In 1577, Spanish explorer Pedro Menéndez de Avilés returned to the area and built Fort San Marcos in Spanish America. The fort was used until 1582 or 1583, when a second Fort San Marcos was constructed by the Spanish.
January 1583: When the Spanish arrived in the area of Cagayan, they incorporated this territory to the Captaincy of the Philippines following the 1582 Cagayan battles.
January 1587: Lanzarote was reconquered by Spain from the Turks.
January 1588: Santa Elena was a Spanish settlement located in present-day San Marcos, which was part of the Spanish colony of La Florida. The fortifications were built to protect the town from attacks by indigenous tribes and other European powers. The abandonment of Santa Elena in 1587 marked the end of Spanish presence in the area.
January 1593: Spain claimed the Marshall islands in 1592.
January 1596: Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Tolomato (also called simply Mission Tolomato; in Spanish: Our Lady of Guadalupe - or Guadeloupe - of Tolomato) was a Spanish Catholic mission founded in 1595 in what is now the state of Georgia, located north of the lands of the southernmost Native American Guale chiefdom, Asao-Talaxe.
January 1597: Henry IV of France confirmed Montluc in his position as governor of Cambrai in 1594. However, this was very unpopular, so that the citizens handed over their city to the Spaniards just two years later.
January 1599: In 1598, the Spanish Empire was at its peak under the rule of King Philip II. The empire included territories in Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas.
January 1601: By 1600 Spain completed the conquest of the Philippines.
January 1601: In the late 16th century, the English, who had successfully settled the area contesting claims by the Dutch, established a permanent plantation colony on Tortola and the surrounding islands.
January 1601: In 1600, the Spanish city of La Imperial was destroyed by the Mapuche Chiefdoms during the Arauco War in Chile.
January 1603: Finale Ligure Marquisate enfeoffed to the King of Spain.
February 1603: In 1603, the Spanish city of Villarrica was captured by the Mapuche Chiefdoms. The last remaining inhabitants of Villarrica surrendered and were taken captive by the Mapuches.
January 1604: In 1603, the Spanish forces under the command of Governor Alonso de Ribera destroyed the territories of Arauco and Osorno, which were inhabited by the Mapuche Chiefdoms.
January 1607: Spanish forces captured the former Portuguese fort from the Ternatese.
January 1610: A a flotilla of seven ships left England under the company's admiral, Sir George Somers to relieve the colony of Jamestown. However the flotilla was broken up by a storm and landed in Bermuda. They started a new settlement here, and Bermuda was claimed for the English Crown.
January 1610: Evolution of the border between the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands before the Thirty Year's War.
January 1610: In 1609, Costa Rica became the southernmost province of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, which was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This decision was made by the Spanish authorities in order to better administer and control the territory.
January 1611: Larache was under Spanish control since 1610.
January 1614: Foundation of the March of Spigno by Marcantonio Asinari.
January 1615: In 1614, the Spanish took control of Mehdya, Morocco (known as La Mamora).
August 1620: James VI and I of Scotland and England granted a Royal Patent for colonisation of Nevis to the Earl of Carlisle in 1620. European settlement did not begin until 1628, establishing Nevis as a British territory.
January 1624: The first English colony was established in 1623 on the island of St. Christopher, now known as St. Kitts. The colony was founded by Sir Thomas Warner and was the first English settlement in the Caribbean.
January 1624: The town of Taytay was formally founded in 1623 , during the Spanish colonization of the region.
January 1626: Dutch and English settlers landed at Saint Croix in 1625, joined by some French refugees from Saint Kitts. However, the English expelled the Dutch and French settlers.
January 1626: In 1625, French and English settlers arrived on the island of Tortuga after initially planning to settle on the island of Hispaniola.
January 1627: Spanish expedition to Formosa, where they built the first settlement, named Santissima Trinidad.
January 1627: In 1626, the French, led by Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc, expelled Spanish settlers from Guadeloupe, establishing it as a French colony.
July 1628: An early European settlement on the island of Tobago, a Dutch colony named New Walcheren, formed in 1628.
January 1629: In 1628, the Spanish successfully conquered the colony of Tobago, which was previously under Dutch control.
September 1629: Spanish occupation of St. Christopher.
January 1630: In 1629, during the Eighty Years' War, Eindhoven was captured by the Dutch Republic under the leadership of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange.
January 1630: Tortuga was a Caribbean island known for being a haven for pirates and privateers. The French and English settlers were attacked by the Spanish under the command of Don Fadrique de Toledo, who sought to assert Spanish control over the territory. The Spanish forces fortified the island and successfully expelled the French and English settlers in 1629.
January 1630: In 1629 the Spanish erected a second base, centered on Fort San Domingo, in Tamsui.
January 1631: The Spanish leave two coastal tips of Saint Christopher island to the French.
January 1631: The Spanish leave the central part of Saint Christopher island to the British.
January 1631: Anglo-French occupation of Tortuga.
January 1632: In 1631, the Dutch West India Company, under the leadership of Peter Stuyvesant, built Fort Amsterdam on Saint Martin. This strategic fort was constructed to protect the Dutch interests in the Caribbean and secure their control over the island.
January 1632: The Dutch West India Company, under the leadership of Peter Stuyvesant, established a fort on the island of Anguilla in 1631. This marked the beginning of Dutch colonization in the region, with Anguilla becoming a territory of the Netherlands.
January 1633: Antigua conquered by great britain.
January 1633: Montserrat conquered by great britain.
July 1633: In 1633, the Spanish captured St. Martin, driving off the Dutch colonists.
January 1634: The territory of Anguilla fell under Spanish control in 1633.
August 1634: The Dutch West India Company under Admiral Johann van Walbeeck invaded the island of Curaçao and the Spaniards there surrendered in San Juan in August.
September 1635: In 1635, Martinique was colonized by the Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique, a French trading company.
January 1636: Spanish reconquest of Tortuga.
April 1636: Bonaire was conquered in March 1636 by the Dutch West India Company under the leadership of Admiral Johan van Walbeeck. The island was originally inhabited by the indigenous Arawak people before being colonized by the Dutch.
April 1636: In 1636, the chamber of Zeeland of the Dutch West India Company took possession of the island of Sint Estatius, reported to be uninhabited at the time.
May 1636: The Netherlands seized Aruba from Spain in 1636 in the course of the Thirty Years' War.
January 1638: In 1637, the Duchy of Courland colonized Tobago, making it the second smallest European nation to establish a presence in America. The colonization was led by Duke Jacob Kettler of Courland, who aimed to establish a profitable colony for his nation.
January 1638: Anglo-French occupation of Tortuga.
January 1639: British Honduras was a British Crown colony on the east coast of Central America, south of Mexico, from 1638 to 1964.
January 1639: Spanish reconquest of Tortuga.
January 1639: British contact and recognition of the Mosquito Kingdom.
January 1640: The first Couronian colony in Tobago, established by Duke Jacob Kettler of Courland, was blockaded by the Spanish in 1639. This prevented the colony from developing further and ultimately led to its demise.
January 1640: Anglo-French occupation of Tortuga.
May 1640: In 1640, the Dutch colony of Saba was established.
January 1641: Portugal declared its independence from Spanish rule. This led to the loss of Portuguese territories in South America, which were integrated into Spanish America.
January 1641: Annexation of Ceuta by Spain.
January 1641: The Spaniards formally annexed the Sultanate of Lanao, without actually controlling it.
October 1642: 6 - 17 Oct 1642: Spanish occupation of Bonaire under Ruy Fernández de Fuenmayor.
October 1642: 6 - 17 Oct 1642: Spanish occupation of Bonaire under Ruy Fernández de Fuenmayor.
January 1643: In 1642, Port Royal on Roatán was occupied by English logwood cutters and settlers from what became British Honduras and now is known as Belize.
January 1645: In 1644, Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña (later Puerto Cansado) was captured by the Saadi dynasty, a ruling dynasty of Morocco. This territory was previously under Spanish control from 1510 until 1644.
January 1648: Pontremoli (about 6,000 inhabitants) was bought by the Republic of Genoa in November 1647.
March 1648: In 1648, the island of Saint Martin lost its value to Spain after the end of the Eighty Years' War. The Spanish abandoned it, allowing the Dutch to return. The French also began settling, leading to a division of the island between the two powers through the Treaty of Concordia.
November 1648: Governor Charles Houël du Petit Pré was a French colonial administrator who organized the first French colonization of the Americas in 1648 on Marie-Galante. The territory was granted to the Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique, and around fifty men settled near the site known as Vieux Fort "Old Fort."
January 1649: English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera.
September 1650: Spanish invasion of Saint-Croix.
January 1651: In 1650, the Spanish forces, led by Governor Francisco de Segura, successfully reclaimed the Bay Islands from the English after fierce battles at Port Royal.
January 1651: Following several unsuccessful attempts by Europeans to colonise Grenada, due to resistance from the Island Caribs, French settlement and colonisation began in 1650 and continued for the next century.
January 1651: In 1650, British colonization of Anguilla began, marking the territory's transition to becoming part of Great Britain.
January 1652: A French force of 166 men attacked, and in the following year 1651 had established a colony of 300 on the island of Saint-Croix. From 1651 until 1664, the Knights of Malta (at the time a vassal state of the Kingdom of Sicily), ruled the island in the name of Louis XIV.
January 1652: Philip IV of Spain, in his capacity as Duke of Milan, sold Pontremoli to the Grand Duke Ferdinando II de' Medici.
January 1653: Foundation of the Barony of Retegno and Bettola by the Cardinal Gian Giacomo Teodoro Trivulzio.
May 1654: On 20 May 1654, the ship The Arms of the Duchess of Courland arrived carrying 45 cannon, 25 officers, 124 Couronian soldiers and 80 families of colonists to occupy Tobago. Captain Willem Mollens declared the island New Courland.
January 1655: Spanish reconquest of Tortuga.
January 1656: In 1655 Tortuga was reoccupied by English and French interlopers under Elias Watts, who secured a commission from Col. William Brayne, acting as military Governor on Jamaica, to serve as "Governor" of Tortuga.
January 1658: The Dutch West India Company, a trading company established by the Dutch government, established a post on Saint Thomas in 1657.
March 1663: Borders established by the Charter of Carolina (1663).
January 1664: The Spaniards, led by Governor-General Diego de Salcedo, abandoned Ternate and Tidore in 1663.
January 1668: King Afonso VI of Portugal recognized the formal allegiance of Ceuta to Spain and formally ceded Ceuta to King Carlos II of Spain by the Treaty of Lisbon.
July 1670: The Treaty of Madrid of 1670 was signed between England and Spain, formalizing England's control over the Cayman Islands and Jamaica.
January 1672: Destruction of Panama City following the incursion of the pirate Henry Morgan in 1671.
January 1673: The English privateer Sir Henry Morgan captured the British Virgin Islands in 1672, including the island of Jost Van Dyke. This marked the beginning of British control over the territory, which continues to this day.
January 1680: The New Colony of Sacramento (Nova Colónia do Sacramento) was founded by the Portuguese in 1680, led by Manuel Lobo. It was located in present-day Uruguay and later became part of Portuguese Brazil after a treaty with the Spanish.
August 1680: Garro, a Portuguese governor, sent a force of 3,400 men led by Antonio de Vera Mujica to capture Colonia del Sacramento from the Spanish on the night of 6-7 August 1680.
January 1681: The mission on St. Catherines Island was established by Spanish Franciscan friars in 1602. In 1680, the territory was transferred to the Province of Carolina as part of the changing colonial powers in the region.
January 1681: The British annexed the Islands of Anegada and Virgin Gorda.
January 1681: The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 was led by Native American leaders such as Popé, who united various Pueblo tribes to drive out the Spanish colonizers from Nuevo México. The revolt resulted in the expulsion of the Spanish for 12 years, allowing the Pueblo people to reclaim their lost lands.
January 1682: In 1681, the Spanish territory of Mehdya in Morocco (La Mamora) was ceded to the Sultanate of Morocco.
January 1682: The 1681 Treaty of Lisbon, negotiated by Spanish King Charles II and Portuguese King Afonso VI, returned Colonia del Sacramento to Portugal .
January 1686: Fort Saint-Louis, Texas, was founded in 1685 by French explorer René-Robert Cavelier de La Salle on the banks of Garcitas Creek, a few kilometers inland from the mouth of the Lavaca River. La Salle had intended to establish the colony at the mouth of the Mississippi, but inaccurate charts and navigational errors led his ships more than six hundred kilometers to the west, to the coast of Texas.
January 1689: Most of the members of the French colony of Fort Saint Louis (Texas) were killed during a Karankawa raid in late 1688.
January 1690: The Spanish were driven from Larache in 1689.
January 1690: In 1689, Vieques was controlled by Brandenburg-Prussia under the name "Isle of Crabs".
January 1691: Expansion of the Spanish Empire by 1690.
January 1691: In 1690 Alonso de León escorted several Catholic missionaries to east Texas, where they established the first mission in Texas.
January 1693: In 1692, the Spanish reconquest of Nuevo Mexico occurred, bringing the territory under the jurisdiction of the Real Audiencia of Guadalajara. The Viceroy of New Spain in Mexico City provided oversight during this period.
January 1694: During the period from 1689 to 1693, the island of Vieques was under the control of Brandenburg-Prussia, known as the "Isle of Crabs".
January 1695: The Danish West India Company, led by King Christian V of Denmark, settled on St. Thomas in 1672 and St. John in 1694. They later purchased St. Croix from France in 1733, establishing the Danish West Indies as a colonial territory.
January 1696: Lacandon Forest conquered by spain.
January 1697: The Scottish settlers were led by William Paterson, a Scottish trader and founder of the Bank of England. The expeditions were part of the ill-fated Darien scheme, a failed attempt to establish a Scottish colony in the New World for trade with Asia and the Americas.
January 1698: The Ko'woj and the Itzá were the last cultures to be conquered in Mesoamerica.
January 1698: In 1697, the Scottish fleet, led by Captain Robert Pinkerton, landed on Vieques island and claimed it for the Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and The Indies.
January 1700: In 1699, the Spanish launched an expedition led by Governor Don Diego de Vargas to eliminate the Scottish settlers in New Edinburgh, Scotland CO. By that time, many of the settlers had already died from disease or starvation, making the Spanish attack highly effective.
January 1701: When native tribes resisted the Spanish invasion of their homeland, the missionaries returned to Mexico, abandoning Texas for the next two decades.
January 1701: In 1700, the Spanish reconquest of the island of Vieques occurred.
January 1704: A joint Franco-Spanish expedition briefly occupied Nassau, Bahamas, during the War of the Spanish Succession.
February 1704: In 1704, the British successfully retook control of Nassau in the Bahamas from the Spanish, led by Captain John Leake and Captain John Hildesley. This marked a significant victory for the British in the ongoing struggle for control of the Caribbean.
January 1706: The Sultanate of Sulu totally gave up its rule over Palawan to Spain in 1705 and Basilan to Spain in 1762.
January 1708: The Duchy of Savoy conquers Alessandria.
January 1709: In 1708, Mers El Kébir was captured by the Sultanate of Morocco.
January 1709: From 1708 to 1733 the State of the Presidi passed to the crown of Austria.
January 1709: Spanish Oran was a Spanish territory located in present-day Algeria. It was captured by the Ottoman Empire in 1708, but later returned to Spanish control from 1732 to 1791. The city of Oran was an important port and trading hub during this time.
April 1711: The island was rediscovered on Good Friday, 3 April 1711 by Frenchmen Martin de Chassiron and Michel Du Bocage, commanding the French ships La Princesse and La Découverte. It was given the name Île de la Passion (English: Passion Island). They drew up the first map and claimed the island for France.
April 1713: From 1713 until 1720, the Kingdom of Sicily was ruled briefly by the House of Savoy, which had received it by the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht.
June 1715: Philip V united the crowns of Castile and Aragon into a single state.
January 1717: The Spanish returned to southeastern Texas in 1716, establishing several missions and a presidio to maintain a buffer between Spanish territory and the French colonial Louisiana district of New France.
February 1718: The colony of Colonia del Sacramento was originally founded by the Portuguese in 1680 but was later captured by the Spanish. In 1718, as part of the Treaty of Utrecht, the territory was officially returned to Portugal. Manuel Gomes Barbosa was the Portuguese official who took possession of the colony at that time.
January 1720: In 1719, the territory of St. Vincent and the Grenadines was transferred to Spanish America based on available maps. This decision was made by the Spanish authorities at the time, who were likely influenced by geopolitical considerations and territorial claims in the region.
January 1720: Various attempts by the English and Dutch to claim the island proved unsuccessful, and it was the French who were first able to colonise the island, settling in the town of Barrouallie on the Leeward side of St Vincent in 1719.
January 1720: In 1719, the French under the command of General Bienville captured Pensacola, a Spanish settlement in Florida. However, the Spanish forces led by Governor José de Zúñiga y la Cerda were able to retake the town. Unfortunately, they lost control of Pensacola again later that same year.
June 1732: The corporate charter of Georgia was granted to General James Oglethorpe by king George II, for whom the colony was named. The charter was finalized by the King's privy council on June 9, 1732.
July 1732: Spain's first Bourbon ruler Philip V wished to re-establish Spanish supremacy on the Algerian coast, and in 1732 sent an expedition which retook Oran and Mers El Kebir.
January 1733: The Black River settlement was a British settlement on the Mosquito Coast of present-day Honduras. It was established in 1732 by a British colonist named William Pitt.
January 1733: In 1732, Mers El Kébir became part of the territory it is named after. Mers El Kébir was a strategic port in Algeria, known for its naval significance. The period from 1732 to 1792 saw various conflicts and power struggles in the region.
January 1741: The Empire lost much of its territory due to the arrival of the western powers such as the Spanish in the Philippines.
January 1743: The first records indicating permanent English settlements in the Bay Islands show that Port Royal, on the island of Roatán, was again occupied in the year 1742.
January 1750: The conflicts over the Southern colonial frontiers led to the signing of the Treaty of Madrid (1750), in which Spain and Portugal agreed to a considerable Southwestward expansion of colonial Brazil. According to the treaty, Colonia de Sacramento was to be given to Spain in exchange for the territories of São Miguel das Missões, a region occupied by Jesuit missions dedicated to evangelizing the Guaraní natives.
November 1762: With the Treaty of Fointainebleau, France ceded the west split of Lousiana to Spain.
January 1763: Georgia expanded south of the Altamaha in 1762.
January 1763: The British conquest of Cuba in 1762 was led by Admiral George Pocock and General George Keppel during the Seven Years' War. The military occupation lasted for a year before the territory was returned to Spain in exchange for Florida.
January 1767: In 1766, France surrendered its claim on the Falklands to Spain, under the Treaty of Paris. The Spanish renamed the French colony Puerto Soledad, and established a settlement on the islands.
January 1771: The problems at Saunders Island began when Spanish explorer Don Juan Ignacio de Madariaga discovered and captured Port Egmont in 1770, leading to tensions between Spain and Britain over control of the Falkland Islands.
January 1772: Restitution of Saunders Island to Britain in 1771.
January 1773: The Viceroy of Peru, Manuel de Amat y Juniet, following the instructions of the Spanish Crown, organised an expedition to settle and colonise the island in 1772, largely to prevent other powers from gaining a base in the Pacific from which to attack the coast of Peru, but also to evangelise.
December 1774: The Treaty of Tapihue was signed between the Spanish Crown and the Mapuche people of Araucanía. It recognized the autonomy of the Araucanía region and its people, led by Chief Curipan and Governor Francisco Marín Vicuña. This marked a significant moment in the history of indigenous resistance against Spanish colonization in Chile.
January 1775: Both the British and Spanish settlements coexisted in the archipelago until 1774, when Britain's new economic and strategic considerations led it to voluntarily withdraw from the islands, leaving a plaque claiming the Falklands for King George III.
November 1775: The Spanish mission on Tahiti was established by explorer Domingo de Bonechea in 1774. However, due to conflicts with the local Tahitians and lack of resources, the mission was abandoned on 12 November 1775.
October 1779: The settlement in Carmen de Patagones was led by Francisco de Viedma, a Spanish explorer and founder of the Patagonian settlements. The Galicians and Maragatos were groups of Spanish immigrants who played a significant role in the colonization of the region.
August 1780: La Cangayé was founded by Father Antonio Lapa on August 10, 1780, after the governor of Tucumán, Gerónimo Matorras, traveled to the place in 1774 to make peace with the chief Paykín in Gran Chaco, Spanish America.
January 1784: In 1783, the Spaniard invaders claimed Batanes as part of the Philippines under the auspices of Governor-General José Basco y Vargas. This made its own history to be vanished rapidly.
January 1784: The Treaty of Lonquilmo was signed in 1784 between the Spanish Crown and the Mapuche people of Araucanía. This treaty recognized the sovereignty of the King of Spain over the territory.
July 1786: Britain agreed to evacuate all British settlements from the Mosquito Coast. In exchange, Spain agreed to expand the territory available to British loggers on the Yucatan Peninsula, and allowed them to cut mahogany and other hardwoods that were increasing in value.
January 1787: The British appointed Captain John Moss as the first superintendent of Belize in 1786. This marked the formal establishment of British control over the territory, which was then known as British Honduras.
August 1787: The Black River settlement was a British outpost in present-day Belize. The transfer of control to Spanish authorities was part of the Treaty of Versailles, which aimed to resolve territorial disputes between Britain and Spain in the region.
January 1791: By 1790, the Spanish Empire in America had expanded further inland in both South and North America, acquired the Galápagos Islands, and controlled California as well as parts of Oregon. Southern Argentina was only nominally under Spanish rule.
January 1791: By 1790, the British had expanded further inland in Canada, and their North American possessions came to border those of the Spanish Empire.
September 1792: In the night after October 8, 1790, a violent earthquake in Oran and Mers El Kebir claimed more than 3,000 victims in less than seven minutes. Spanish king Charles IV saw no advantage in continuing the occupation of the cities, which had become increasingly expensive and perilous. He initiated discussions with the Bey of Algiers. They signed a treaty on September 12, 1792 by which the Spanish transferred the cities to the Ottoman Empire.
January 1794: In 1793, La Cangayé, a Spanish settlement in Gran Chaco, was definitively abandoned.
March 1799: Sultan Slimane signed an accord with King Charles IV of Spain, in which he recognized that the Saguia el Hamra and Cape Juby regions were not part of his dominions.
January 1800: The State of Muskogee was founded in 1799 and led by William Augustus Bowles, a Loyalist veteran of the American Revolutionary War who lived among the Muscogee, and envisioned uniting the American Indians of the Southeast into a single nation that could resist the expansion of the United States.
January 1802: From 1801 to 1867, the successive constitutions of Haiti claimed national sovereignty over adjacent islands, including Navassa Island.
October 1804: The Orleans Territory was organized from the Louisiana Purchase south of 33° north, with the remainder being designated the District of Louisiana and placed under the jurisdiction of Indiana Territory.
January 1807: The Neutral Ground (also known as the Neutral Strip, the Neutral Territory, and the No Man's Land of Louisiana; sometimes anachronistically referred to as the Sabine Free State) was a disputed area between Spanish Texas and the United States' newly acquired Louisiana Purchase. Local officers of Spain and the United States agreed to leave the Neutral Ground temporarily outside the jurisdiction of either country. The area, now in western Louisiana, had neutral status from 1806 to 1821.
January 1808: In February 1807, British reinforcements of about 8,000 men under Gen. Sir Samuel Auchmuty captured Montevideo after a fierce fight. In May Lt. Gen. John Whitelock arrived to take overall command and attacked Buenos Aires on 5 July 1807. After losing more than half his force, who were killed or captured, Whitelock signed a cease-fire and departed for Great Britain.
January 1809: Portuguese occupation of Cisplatina (Uruguay).
September 1810: The Republic of West Florida declares independence from Spain.
January 1811: The Rademaker-Herrera agreement, strongly desired by the British ambassador Lord Strangford, forced the invading Portuguese army to return to the Brazilian borders.
January 1812: Amid the British invasions of the Río de la Plata during the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, the Spanish governor of the Falkland Islands evacuated the archipelago in 1806; Spain's remaining colonial garrison followed suit in 1811, except for gauchos and fishermen who remained voluntarily.
January 1813: The Russians, led by Ivan Kuskov, established their outpost of Fort Ross in 1812 near Bodega Bay in Northern California. The territory was under the control of the Russian-American Company, a trading company chartered by Tsar Paul I.
January 1820: The Adams-Onís Treaty between the United States and Spain defined the boundary between the U.S. and New Spain.
January 1821: Captain James Cook discovered the southern eight islands of the Sandwich Islands Group in 1775, although he lumped the southernmost three together, and their status as separate islands was not established until 1820 by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen.
September 1821: The Captaincy General of Guatemala, an administrative region of the Spanish Empire consisting of Chiapas, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Honduras, officially proclaimed its independence from Spain. Independence from Spain was gained, and the Captaincy General of Guatemala joined the First Mexican Empire under Agustin de Itubide.
November 1821: The Isthmus of Panama declared its independence from Spain and decided to voluntarily join Gran Colombia.
December 1821: The independent state that resulted from the defeat of Spanish colonialists from Santo Domingo on November 9, 1821, led by General José Núñez de Cáceres. The republic lasted only from December 1, 1821.
January 1822: The area of Panama joined the Republic of Gran Colombia in November 1821.
July 1823: The Federal Republic of Central America declares its independence from the Mexican Empire.
January 1828: Unwilling to invest heavily in the development of Fernando Pó, from 1827 to 1843, the Spanish leased a base at Malabo on Bioko to the United Kingdom.
January 1844: Based on an agreement with Spain in 1843, Britain moved its base in Malabo to its own colony of Sierra Leone in West Africa.
February 1845: In 1845, France, represented by Admiral Cécille, forced the Sulu Sultanate, led by Sultan Muizzuddin, to formally cede Basilan Island to France. This marked the beginning of French colonial presence in the region.
August 1845: The claims were made by French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville, who initially declared Basilan as part of French territory. However, after negotiations, the claims were withdrawn and sovereignty of the island was officially transferred to Spain on August 5, 1845.
January 1848: Chafarinas islands belonged to Spain from 6 of January of 1848.
April 1851: In 1848 and 1851, the Spanish launched attacks on Balanguingui and Jolo respectively. A peace treaty was signed on 30 April 1851 in which the sultan could only regain its capital if Sulu and its dependencies became a part of the Philippine Islands under the sovereignty of Spain.
January 1859: 1858: State split between Cabo San Juan and Corisco.
March 1861: In 1861, the Dominican Republic was annexed to Spain.
January 1862: From 1837, the Spanish colonial power gained control of the Sultanate of Maguindanao and by 1861 they managed to occupy the entire area of today's Cotabato.
February 1873: Spain. The Republic's founding started with the abdication as King on 10 February 1873 of Amadeo I.
December 1874: General Arsenio Martínez Campos's pronunciamiento marked the beginning of the Bourbon Restoration in Spain.
January 1878: The concession treaty signed in 1878 by Sultan Jamal ul-Azam of Sulu appointed Baron de Overbeck as Dato Bendahara and Raja Sandakan in North Borneo. This treaty marked the transfer of territory to the State of North Borneo.
December 1884: Spain declared "a protectorate of the African coast" from Cape Blanc to Cape Bojador.
October 1885: Spain sold some of the Marshall islands to the German Empire in 1886.
January 1886: Río Muni became a Spanish protectorate in 1885.
January 1887: Spanish protectorate on Adrar.
August 1898: Spain ceded its claims over the islands to Germany.
June 1900: Spain had never undertaken colonial settlement of the large area in the Bight of Biafra to which it had treaty rights. The French expanded their occupation at the expense of the area claimed by Spain. By the treaty of Paris in 1900, Spain was left with the continental enclave of Río Muni.
January 1909: Establishment of French protectorate in Adrar.
November 1912: With the Hispano-French Treaty signed on 27 November 1912, France recognized Spain's control over the territory of the northern zone of Morocco, thereby establishing the Spanish protectorate with its capital in Tetouan.
July 1916: Francisco Bens officially occupied the Cape Juby region for Spain.
January 1927: In 1926 Bioko and Rio Muni were united as the colony of Spanish Guinea.
April 1931: The Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed after the deposition of Alfonso XIII.
April 1931: The Catalan Republic was a state proclaimed in 1931 by Francesc Macià as the "Catalan Republic within the Iberian Federation".
April 1931: The government of the new Spanish Republic, concerned about the proclamation of the Catalan Republic and the duality of powers it created, sent three ministers (Fernando de los Ríos, Lluís Nicolau d'Olwer and Marcel·lí Domingo) to Barcelona in order to negotiate with Macià and the Catalan Government. Macià reached an agreement with the three ministers, in which the Catalan Republic was renamed the Generalitat of Catalonia, becoming an autonomous government within the Spanish Republic.
April 1956: When France ended its protectorate over Morocco, Spain discontinued the protectorate and retroceded the territory to the newly independent kingdom, while retaining the plazas de soberanía which were part of Spain prior to the colonial period, Cape Juby, Ifni, and other colonies (such as Spanish Sahara) outside of Morocco.
October 1968: Indipendence of Equatorial Guinea from Spain.
June 1969: Following a treaty signed on 4 January and ratified 22 April, Spain formally returned the territory to Morocco.
November 1975: Proclamation of Juan Carlos I of Bourbon as King of Spain. Juan Carlos I introduced reforms to dismantle the Francoist regime and to begin the Spanish transition to democracy.
Selected Sources
Exploración y conquista de Nueva Granada, August 24th, 2016 on https://laamericaespanyola.com/2016/08/24/exploracion-y-conquista-de-nueva-granada/
Fernández Álvarez, M. (1998): Felipe II y su tiempo, cuarta edición, p. 523
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.104
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.112
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.115
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.130
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.142
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.1492
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.1497
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.1501
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.1502
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.1505
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.166
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.277
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.278
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.288
Fredriksen, J.C. (2010): Chronology of American Military History - Volume 1, Facts On File, p.289
Fundación de Santa María la Antigua del Darién. Retrieved on March 24th, 2024 on https://panamahistoria.tripod.com/Stamaria.htm
Guinot, D. L. (2014): From Al-Andalus to Monte Sacro, Bloomington (USA), p. 83
Harvey, L. P. (1992): Islamic Spain, 1250 to 1500, Chicago (USA)
Henderson, J. D. / Delpar, H. / Brungardt, M. P. / Weldon, R. N. (2000): A Reference Guide to Latin American History, New York (USA), pp. 21-22
Historia. Retrieved on March 24th, 2024 on https://www.barrancabermeja.gov.co/publicaciones/11/historia/
Johannes Arndt: Der Dreißigjährige Krieg 1618–1648. Reclam Sachbuch, Stuttgart 2009, S. 81–84.
Kitchin, T. (1778). The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe
Krumenacker, Y. (2008): La Guerre de Trente Ans, Paris, Ellipses, pp. 146-147
Livet, G. (1994): La Guerre de Trente Ans, Paris (France), p. 37
Marley, D. (2008): Wars of the Americas: a chronology of armed conflict in the New World, 1492 to the present, vol. II, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2008, p. 449 and p. 450
Missall, John and Mary Lou Missall. 2004. The Seminole Wars: America's Longest Indian Conflict. University Press of Florida. pp. 39–40.
O'Callaghan, J. F. (2011): The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, Philadelphia (USA)
O'Callaghan, J. F. (2014): The Last Crusade in the West: Castile and the Conquest of Granada, Philadelphia (USA)
Panhuysen, L. (2009): Rampjaar 1672: Hoe de Republiek aan de ondergang ontsnapte, Uitgeverij Atlas
Santa Cruz: primer poblado Venezolano. Retrieved on March 24th, 2024 on https://venezuelaesplus.blogspot.com/2018/05/santa-cruz-primera-ciudad-construida-en.html
Schmiele, E. (1887): Zur Geschichte des schwedisch-polnischen Krieges von 1655 bis 1660, Berlin (Germany), p. 5
Smith, D. (1998): The Napoleonic Wars Data Book, London: Greenhill, p. 104
Treaty of Ryswick (English version), https://bonoc.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/tratado-ryswick.pdf
Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, p.157
Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, p.170
Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, pp.155
Unknown Author (1812): The Royal Military Chronicle, vol. V, London (UK), pp. 52, 53.
Zeller, O. (2024): La Bresse et le pouvoir: Le Papier journal de Jean Corton, syndic du tiers état (1641-1643), Dijon (France), p. 12
Zuñiga, J. P. (2023): Constellations d’empire: Territorialisation et construction impériale dans les Amériques hispaniques (XVIIe-XVIIIe siècle), Madrid (Spain), p. 21
de Oliveira Marques , A. H. R.(1972): History of Portugal, Columbia University Press, p. 322-325
PASADO, PRESENTE Y FUTURO. retrieved on March 24th, 2024 on https://www.jamundi.gov.co/MiMunicipio/Paginas/Pasado-Presente-y-Futuro.aspx
PASADO, PRESENTE Y FUTURO. retrieved on March 24th, 2024 on https://www.turbaco-bolivar.gov.co/MiMunicipio/Paginas/Pasado-Presente-y-Futuro.aspx
spain
