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Kingdom of the Lombards: Guide
The Lombards were a Germanic people who rose to power during the Migration Period. Originally settled in Noricum (modern-day eastern Austria), the Lombards moved into Byzantine-controlled Italy, where they swiftly took control of most of the peninsula. Their kingdom eventually fell to the Frankish Empire in 774, though Lombard-controlled areas in southern Italy remained autonomous for centuries. This guide offers an overview of the Lombard Kingdom, exploring its society, territory, population, and culture.
1. History
The chronology of all the territorial changes of the polity is available here.
Establishment
The Lombard Kingdom emerged in Italy following the descent of the entire Lombard tribe into the peninsula in 568 AD. This invasion was spearheaded by approximately 50,000 Lombard warriors accompanied by 20,000 Saxon auxiliaries. The Lombard general Alboin (d. 572) led this formidable force over the Julian Alps. In 569, a significant victory was achieved against Roman imperial forces under Longinus in northeastern Italy, near Ravenna, effectively opening the Po valley to the invaders.
The Lombards swiftly overran the Po valley. Milan fell to them in short order, although Pavia required a three-year siege before its capture in 572. With the fall of Pavia, northern Italy became known as Lombardy, and Pavia was established as the Lombard capital. From their stronghold in Pavia, the Lombards were able to expel most of the imperial forces from Italy, although several large coastal cities remained under the control of Constantinople.
The rule of Alboin was abruptly terminated by his assassination in 572. According to accounts, Rosamund, the daughter of the defeated Gepid king Cunimund, conspired to have him murdered in revenge for forcing her to drink from a cup made from her father's skull.
Alboin was succeeded by Cleph, who reigned from 572 to 574. Cleph continued the Lombard expansion in Italy, including the infiltration of Tuscany. However, Cleph's reign was also short-lived, as he was assassinated in 574 by a slave he had been abusing. Roman sources remembered Cleph as a warlike tyrant fond of atrocities.
Following Cleph's assassination, the Lombard kingdom experienced an interregnum lasting for ten years. During this period, the Lombard territories were divided among up to thirty rival Lombard commanders, known as 'Dukes,' who ruled jointly.
Reign of Authari
The inherent weakness resulting from the decade-long interregnum and the potential threat of Frankish invasion encouraged the Lombard dukes to elect Authari, the son of the assassinated King Cleph, as their new king in 584. Authari's accession marked a definite end to the initial period of instability that had characterized the Lombard realm. By the end of Authari's reign in 590, the Lombard Kingdom had expanded, with the Lombards conquering important Italian cities, including Padua and Genoa.
Reign of Agilulf
Agilulf, also known as Ago, became king of the Lombards in 590, reigning until his death in 616. Before ascending to the throne, he held the prestigious title of Duke of Turin. Agilulf's path to kingship was unique, arising from his marriage to Queen Theodelinda, the widow of the previous king Authari.
Agilulf faced the ongoing challenge of consolidating royal authority over the semi-autonomous Lombard duchies. He managed to definitively reconquer Parma from the Byzantine forces.
Conversion to Catholicism (Late 6th–7th Centuries)
During the reign of King Agilulf, St. Columbanus arrived in Milan to preach to the 'Arian' Lombard leadership. Agilulf's queen, Theodelinda of Bavaria, was a Catholic and played a crucial role in persuading her husband to convert to Catholicism. The conversion of the Lombard leadership under Agilulf paved the way for the subsequent conversion of most of the Lombard kingdom.
The Donation of Sutri (728)
In 728, King Liutprand of the Lombards ceded some castles in Latium, including Sutri, to Pope Gregory II. The donation of Sutri is often considered a pivotal moment, marking the beginning of the Papal States as a temporal power.
Aistulf's War Against the Byzantines (751)
Under King Aistulf, the Lombard kingdom adopted a more aggressive stance against the remaining Byzantine territories in Italy. In 751, Aistulf seized Ravenna, the seat of the Byzantine Exarchate, effectively ending imperial rule in central Italy.
Frankish Lombard War (773–774) and Disestablishment
The Frankish intervention in Italy, prompted by papal appeals against the Lombard king Desiderius, marked the end of the Lombard Kingdom as an independent entity. In 773–774, Charlemagne led his armies across the Alps and laid siege to Pavia, the Lombard capital. After conquering the Lombard Kingdom, Charles assumed the title of king of the Lombards.
The Lombard legacy in Italy persisted. The southern Lombard Duchy of Benevento managed to maintain its independence despite the Frankish conquest of the north, remaining a significant force in southern Italy for centuries.
2. Political System
The political system of the Lombard Kingdom was characterized by a monarchy, though its power was not always absolute and was significantly influenced by a powerful class of nobles and regional divisions.
The kingdom experienced a period of instability and decentralization following the assassination of King Cleph in 574, leading to a decade where the Lombard territories were divided into as many as thirty-five duchies, each centered in a conquered city.
Even after the re-establishment of a more centralized monarchy with the elevation of Authari in 584, the influence of the Lombard nobility remained a crucial factor in the kingdom's political landscape.
3. Territory
The Kingdom of the Lombards came to encompass a significant portion of the Italian mainland, although its territorial extent fluctuated throughout its nearly two-hundred-year existence.
Territorial Subdivisions
Regional dukes held substantial influence. The administration of larger territories was also carried out by royal officials known as Gastaldi, who were the king's trusted representatives administering vast areas with civil, judicial, and military powers. Examples of gastaldati in Lombard Tuscany were located in Luni, Pistoia, Volterra, Siena, and Arezzo.
Climate and Nature
The territory encompassed by the Lombard Kingdom was geographically diverse, stretching across a significant latitudinal range of the Italian Peninsula, primarily north of Tuscany. This area included the fertile plains of the Po Valley, the mountainous regions of the Alps and Apennines, and the coastal areas along the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Seas.
Most Important Cities and Capital
Pavia emerged as the primary capital of the Lombard Kingdom after its conquest by Alboin in 569. Numerous other cities played crucial roles within the Lombard territorial framework. Milan was a significant urban center, and it was where St. Columbanus arrived to preach to the Lombard leadership. Other important cities included Verona, Aquileia, Vicenza, and Lucca.
4. Society
The Lombard Kingdom developed a complex society shaped by the interaction of the Germanic Lombard conquerors and the existing Roman and Byzantine populations.
The Evolution of the Kingdom's Population
Population
The Lombard social structure was notably hierarchical, with a relatively small Lombard elite exerting control over a larger subject population. At the apex of Lombard society were the aristocratic military clans known as the farae. Below the dukes were the arimanni (or ardemanni), often described as "men of daring." At the base of the social scale were the servi, who lived in conditions of slavery.
The conquered Roman and Byzantine populations constituted a significant portion of the overall population. With the passage of time and the Lombards' conversion to Catholicism, integration with the old Roman elites gradually occurred.
Religion
Upon their arrival in Italy, the Lombard tribes largely adhered to Arian Christianity. A pivotal figure in the religious transformation was Queen Theodelinda of Bavaria, King Agilulf's wife. Theodelinda was a devout Catholic, and her influence at the Lombard court proved instrumental in fostering a gradual shift towards Catholicism.
The reign of subsequent Lombard rulers witnessed a growing acceptance and eventual dominance of Catholic Christianity within the kingdom.
5. Economy
Over the two centuries of their rule, the Lombard Kingdom evolved from a warrior society to one with a more settled agricultural and artisanal base. The primary economic resource was land and its agricultural output.
Monetary System
Upon their invasion of Italy beginning in 568 AD, the Lombards did not immediately establish a distinctly Lombard coinage. Instead, the initial monetary landscape of Lombard-controlled territories was characterized by the circulation of existing Byzantine coinage and the emergence of Lombard imitations of these imperial issues. The primary denomination consisted of gold tremisses.
A significant development was the emergence of coinage bearing the names of the Lombard kings themselves, serving as a powerful statement of sovereignty. Following the Frankish conquest, the monetary system of northern Lombardy transitioned to a silver-based system centered on the denarius.
Rulers of the Lombard Kingdom
6. Culture
The Kingdom of the Lombards served as a crucial link between the era of the Roman Empire and the subsequent rise of the Holy Roman Empire.
Monuments in Pavia
The royal palace in Pavia, though destroyed by fire in 1024 and never rebuilt, was undoubtedly the most important administrative and symbolic landmark of the Lombard state. Beyond the palace, Pavia also developed into a notable center of learning, particularly in law.
Literary Works
Paul the Deacon, an 8th-century Lombard monk, is undoubtedly the most important national author, renowned for his "Historia Langobardorum." This epic work provides a detailed account of the Lombard migration into Italy, the establishment of their kingdom, and the deeds and traditions of their people.
Culinary Traditions
Recent scholarship has shed light on the culinary traditions of the Lombard period, revealing a synthesis between the dietary customs of the Germanic newcomers and the established Mediterranean diet. The arrival of the Lombards brought with them the "triade germanica" of meat, beer, and lard, while the Italian Peninsula was characterized by the "triade mediterranea" of oil, wine, and grain.
Undoubtedly, pork formed the cornerstone of the diet. To preserve meat, techniques such as drying, salting, and smoking were employed. Beyond pork, game was highly prevalent on the tables of the nobility. The lower social classes often opted for boiled meat or stews seasoned with heavily spiced sauces.
Sources
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