Archaic China (1600–221 BCE): From Tribes to Empire
1. China in Western Imagination
China has long represented, in the Western collective imagination, the most distinct among all alternative worlds to Europe. A remote realm, seemingly reluctant to weave equal relationships, yet the source of countless remarkable innovations soon adopted by a perhaps more ambitious West: paper, gunpowder, the compass, porcelain, and silk. These are only a few examples of inventions that Europe borrowed from the Far East. But China has also been much more: one of the few regions on the planet to have experienced extremely long human continuity (since the time of Homo erectus, roughly 500,000–230,000 years ago); a vast land inhabited by hundreds of populations distinct in language and ethnicity, yet one that early on embarked on a unifying path.
Genealogy of China's state forms throughout history (2069 BC – 2025 AD)
2. The Middle Kingdom
China is commonly defined, in Mandarin, by the term Zhōngguó, meaning “Middle Kingdom.” The meaning of this name becomes clear when considering the morphology of its vast territory: the country stretches from 54° to 18° north latitude, and from 74° to 135° east longitude. China is bordered to the east by the ocean, while mountains and deserts loom to the west and north. Its interior regions are dominated by hilly and mountainous landscapes, while populations and agricultural activities (concentrated in just 10% of the territory) are located in key centres: alluvial plains, coastal depressions, and inland basins.
China: Video Summary of the Nation since 1044 BCE
The geomorphology ranges from frozen tundra similar to Siberia (in Manchuria) to the Gobi Desert; from the imposing Tibetan Plateau to the tropical rainforests of Yunnan. The country's hydrological system is defined by the basins of its three main rivers: the Huang He (Yellow River), the Yangtze (Blue River) and the Zhu Jiang (Pearl River). These rivers all flow from west to east, and there are no navigable connections linking them. Consequently, there were originally no natural transportation routes along the north–south axis.
The ethnic composition further illustrates this variety: the Han Chinese constitute only 92% of the total population. The remaining portion consists of 55 officially recognized ethnic groups, including large communities such as the Zhuang and the Manchu.
Map showing the initial year each territory was ruled by China
3. The Birth of Chinese Civilization
The history of China is, fundamentally, the history of an inexorable and continuous expansion that led to the formation of the third-largest country in the world. In 1970, Keith Buchanan wrote that the true history of China concerns not so much the rise and fall of great dynasties, but rather the progressive occupation of Chinese territory by silent generations of farmers who spread south, west, and north from the original cradle located in the central basin of the Huang He.
Chinese Population between 3499 BCE and 2022 AD
Chinese civilization was born on the Loess Plateau, along the central stretch of the Yellow River, where the soil guaranteed regular and abundant harvests. During the first millennium BCE, agriculture finally took hold along the river thanks to the construction of embankments and the introduction of canals which, around 500 BCE, increased the extent of arable land along the main tributaries of the Huang He.
We can say that China's main engine of progress, over many centuries, was the constant constructive exchange between North (economically poor, politically central) and South (agriculturally fertile, politically more autonomous from the northern centre).
4. Archaic China (1600–221 BCE): From Tribes to Dynastic State
Speaking of “China” in relation to the period between 1600 BCE and 221 BCE is perhaps anachronistic. Yet from the beginning of this long span of time, we witness the gradual emergence of a unified state. The country's history in the strict sense is defined by the introduction of writing and urbanization: together with social stratification and military strength, these elements formed a unified system with the advent of the Shang family-dynastic state (1600–1045 BCE).
Maximal Extension of the Shang Dynasty (1599 BC)
The elements that allowed this dynasty to create a new type of social order were precisely the development of writing, the construction of urban settlements, the creation of a nobility, and the elaborate practice of religious rites. The Shang state consisted of a network of patrimonial settlements centered on the king's periodic visits, since the state truly existed only where the king was physically present.
5. The Zhou Dynasty: Cultural Continuity and Political Transformation
The Shang dynasty was abruptly interrupted by defeat at the hands of the Zhou (1045–256 BCE), their former allies. This rupture did not alter the fabric of the original civilization: we see substantial continuity in lifestyles, artistic forms, and even certain religious practices.
Events View of the Zhou Dynasty
The political structure was organized as a network of fortified cities with nearby cultivated fields, where social order was based on lineage. Such political idea is linked to the fengjian system (often mistranslated as “feudal”), in which relatives and allies received fortified settlements to administer, which then became hereditary. The most significant changes concerned new criteria for succession and a sharp reduction in the status and political authority of women, who had previously been as active as men in both war and politics.
6. The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States
With the collapse of the Western Zhou (771 BCE), a turbulent phase of wars and uncertainty began, known as the Spring and Autumn Period, in which small autonomous entities governed by powerful warlords emerged: the Warring States. They drew new strength from two main factors: the institution of universal military service and the development of absolute autocracy, at the expense of the land-based power of the oldest noble families.
Although the Warring States period was certainly not a pleasant time to live in, it was perhaps the most culturally fertile era. It was precisely in these centuries that Confucianism and Taoism were born. Confucianism takes its name from Confucius (551–479 BCE), a wise itinerant teacher who lived at the court of the state of Lu; Taoism derives from the concept of Dao, “Way,” traditionally linked to the semi-legendary figure of Laozi (6th century BCE).
7. Qin Unification and the Birth of the Chinese Empire
After an endless series of wars among the various territorial states, it was the Qin state that ultimately unified all the territories between the basins of the Huang He and the Yangtze. The author of this achievement was Qin Shi Huang (260–210 BCE), who deservedly went down in history as the first emperor of China (221 BCE).
Thus begins the long imperial history of China. For those wishing to explore the birth of this new conception of government, the excellent book Ancient Worlds, published by British historian Michael Scott in 2016, is recommended. Through the analysis of three key moments of the past — Politics, Religion, and War — he weaves a stimulating narrative of the rise of three major protagonists of the ancient world: Athenian democracy, the Roman Republic, and the Chinese Empire.
Sources
- Lewis, M.E., Ancient China, Einaudi, Turin 2018.
- Cavalli-Sforza, L.L. / Menozzi, P. / Piazza, A., The History and Geography of Human Genes, Adelphi, Milan 1994.
- Scott, M., Ancient Worlds: An Epic History of East and West, Hutchinson, London 2016.
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